Omejitve proste trgovine

1
Omejitve proste trgovine

• Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi

2
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi

• Premik trgovinske politike v smeri odpravljanja
  omejitev znotraj meja
• t.i. barriers within the border
• Logicna smer razvoja zaradi primarnega uspeha
  GATT/WTO sporazumov
• Zmanjševanje carinskih stopenj in kolicinskih
  omejitev

3
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi

• Reakcije držav podpisnic
• Novi nacini omejevanja trgovine
• Skupni imenovalec novih ukrepov je visoka
  stopnja subtilnosti in zakrivanja
• Gre za ukrepe, ki omejujejo prosto trgovino s
  sklicevanjem na klasicne standarde, ki naj bi
  bili povsem v domeni nacionalnih držav kot
  suverenih subjektov mednarodnega javnega prava

4
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi

• Standardi
• Zdravje državljanov
• Varnost državljanov
• Varstvo okolja
• Razlikovanje v ureditvah od države do države
• Razlika med standardi predstavlja možnost za
  protekcionisticno politiko

5
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi

• Tudi ce ni namena protekcionizma
• Težave pri nacrtovanju koherentne trgovinske
  politike
• Klasicno vprašanje
• Razmejitev med pravico države do suverenega
  urejanja podrocij,ki se dotikajo varnosti in
  zdravja državljanov in dolžnostjo neomejevanja
  (razen utemeljenega) trgovine do mednarodne
  skupnosti

6
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi

• The decades long process of lowering trade
  barriers resembles the draining of a lake that
  reveals mountain peaks formerly concealed or
  (more pessimistically) the peeling of an onion
  that reveals innumerable layers of barriers.
  Miles Kahler, Trade and Domestic Differences, 1996

7
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi

• 70, 80, 90-a leta 20. stoletja
• Rast kolicine in dvig intenzivnosti standardov,
  ki naj šcitijo clovekovo okolje, varnost in
  zdravje
• Odsev moderne socialne države
• Zdravje, varnost, cisto okolje postajajo
  ekonomske dobrine
• Višji standard drugacne dobrine prevladujejo

8
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi

• Povpraševanje po novih ekonomskih dobrinah
  pripelje do novih regulatornih ukrepov (politike
  na podrocjih varnosti, okolja)
• Ti ukrepi lahko predstavljajo ovire za mednarodno
  trgovino
• Gre za podrocja, ki naj bi klasicno ne sodili v
  domeno mednarodnih trgovinskih sporazumov

9
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi

• Gre za podrocja pod suvereno oblastjo držav
  popolnoma notranja razmerja!!
• Tipicen primer
• eko-protekcionizem vs. Liberalizacija
• Kje so temeljne težave?
• Države izvoznice
• Države uvoznice

10
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi

• Domaci izdelovalci
• Težave z uvoženimi izdelki, ki so bili izdelani
  na podlagi zelo nizkih standardov v državi izvora
  
• Takšni izdelki imajo doloceno vrsto subvencije
  (nižji stroški zaradi nižjih standardov)
• Zahtevajo t.i. level playing field
• Kaj pa komparativne prednosti?

11
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi

• Težave predvsem v odnosu
• Države v razvoju
• Želijo uporabljati svoje (ponavadi) nižje
  okoljske in zdravstvene standarde kot
  komparativno prednost
• Razvite države
• Zaradi višjih domacih standardov so domaci
  izdelki dražji ? zato naj bi bile komparativne
  prednosti DVR v bistvu protekcionisticni ali
  diskriminatorni ukrepi

12
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi

• Tipicna primera
• Delaney Clause v ZDA
• zero-tolerance klavzula, kar zadeva karcinogene
  elemente
• Prepoved tudi, kar zadeva DDT
• Pesticid, ki je dovoljen v skladu s Codex
  Alimentarius
• CA ? ustvarjen 1963 (WHO, FAO) ? z namenom
  zagotoviti varovanje pravic potrošnikov na
  podrocju prehrane in zagotoviti spoštovanje
  poštenih poslovnih obicajev pri trgovini s hrano.
• Preseganje standardov iz CA pomeni prima facie
  presumpcijo ukrepov, ki predstavljajo OMEJITEV
  proste trgovine
• ZDA bo prisiljena dovoliti prihod izdelkov, ki so
  kontaminirani.

13
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi

• Britanske klobase (oznacevanje)
• Britanski izvoznik prodaja klobase v Nemciji
• Predpis od njega zahteva, da svoje izdelke
  oznacuje in trži pod terminom
• pork-filled offal tubes in ne
• sausages
• Zahteva nedvomno izraža sestavo prehrambenega
  artikla, ima pa lahko tudi negativne ucinke kar
  zadeva marketing

14
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi

• Regulatorni okvir
• OECD
• GATT/WTO
• NAFTA
• EU

15
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi

• OECD (GUIDING PRINCIPLES CONCERNING THE
  INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL
  POLICIES 1972)
• Where valid reasons for differences do not exist,
  governments should seek harmonization of
  environmental policies, for instance, with
  respect to timing and the general scope of
  regulation for particular industries to avoid the
  unjustified disruption of international trade
  patterns and of the international allocation of
  resources that may arise from diversity of
  national environmental standards.
• Measures taken to protect the environment should
  be framed as far as possible in such a manner as
  to avoid the creation of non-tariff barriers to
  trade.
• Where products are traded internationally and
  where there could be significant obstacles to
  trade, governments should seek common standards
  for polluting products and agree on the timing
  and general scope of regulations for particular
  products.
• It is highly desirable to define in common, as
  rapidly as possible, procedures for checking
  conformity to product standards established for
  the purpose of environmental control. Procedures
  for checking conformity to standards, to be
  applied by an exporting country to the
  satisfaction of the importing country, should be
  mutually agreed.

16
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi

• GATT/WTO
• Art III/4
• The products of the territory of any contracting
  party imported into the territory of any other
  contracting party shall be accorded treatment no
  less favourable than that accorded to like
  products of national origin in respect of all
  laws, regulations and requirements affecting
  their internal sale, offering for sale, purchase,
  transportation, distribution or use. The
  provisions of this paragraph shall not prevent
  the application of differential internal
  transportation charges which are based
  exclusively on the economic operation of the
  means of transport and not on the nationality of
  the product.

17
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi

• GATT/WTO (Note to III/4)
• Any internal tax or other internal charge, or any
  law, regulation or requirement of the kind
  referred to in paragraph 1 which applies to an
  imported product and to the like domestic product
  and is collected or enforced in the case of the
  imported product at the time or point of
  importation, is nevertheless to be regarded as an
  internal tax or other internal charge, or a law,
  regulation or requirement of the kind referred to
  in paragraph 1, and is accordingly subject to the
  provisions of Article III.

18
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi

• Omogoceni so torej ukrepi, ki ne predstavljajo
  diskriminatornih ukrepov.
• Kaj pa je z nediskriminatornimi ukrepi?

19
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi

• GATT III/1
• internal taxes and other internal charges, and
  laws, regulations and requirements affecting the
  internal sale, offering for sale, purchase,
  transportation, distribution or use of products,
  and internal quantitative regulations requiring
  the mixture, processing or use of products in
  specified amounts or proportions, should not be
  applied to imported or domestic products so as to
  afford protection to domestic production

20
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi

• GATT III/1 predvideva dokazno breme tožece
  stranke protekcionizem zaradi
  nediskriminatornih ukrepov bo težko dokazati!

21
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi

• GATT XX
• Subject to the requirement that such measures are
  not applied in a manner which would constitute a
  means of arbitrary or unjustifiable
  discrimination between countries where the same
  conditions prevail, or a disguised restriction on
  international trade, nothing in this Agreement
  shall be construed to prevent the adoption or
  enforcement by any contracting party of measures

22
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi

• (b) necessary to protect human, animal or plant
  life or health
• (g) relating to the conservation of exhaustible
  natural resources if such measures are made
  effective in conjunction with restrictions on
  domestic production or consumption

23
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi

• Restriktivna razlaga izjem
• Dokazno breme na stranki, ki uporabi izjemo

24
GATT - primeri

• Thai Cigarettes
• http//www.worldtradelaw.net/reports/gattpanels/th
  aicigarettes.pdf
• Tuna/Dolphin
• Herring and Salmon
• http//www.worldtradelaw.net/reports/gattpanels/ca
  nadaherring.pdf
• Beef Hormones

25
Sklepi iz odlocb panelov

• Kaj paneli upoštevajo pri presoji ukrepov, ki jih
  države uvajajo z opravicilom varstva zdravja?
• 1. ali je ukrep razumen in namenjen promociji
  legitimnih ciljev ali gre za prikrito
  diskriminacijo?
• 2. ali je ukrep utemeljen z znanstvenimi
  argumenti (scientific risk assessment)?
• 3. ali je ukrep sorazmeren z zasledovanim ciljem?

26
Sklepi iz odlocb panelov

• 1. ali je ukrep razumen in namenjen promociji
  legitimnih ciljev ali gre za prikrito
  diskriminacijo?
• Ustrezen test?
• T.i. sham test
• Panel mora dejanje države (suverena!!!)
  okarakterizirati kot slaboverno politiko
• Gre za precejšen poseg v suverenost, predvsem pa
  za povsem subjektivno presojo
• Panel mora odlociti, kakšen je bil resnicni
  namen države

27
Sklepi iz odlocb panelov

• 2. ali je ukrep utemeljen z znanstvenimi
  argumenti (scientific risk assessment)?
• Kljub prima facie objektivnosti tega testa gre
  pogosto za vrednostno odlocanje
• Rezultati povsem odvisni od uporabljene
  metodologije
• Odlocanje o nasprotujocih si znanstvenih
  argumentacijah
• Imajo clani panelov (pravniki, diplomati) znanja,
  ki jim omogocajo takšno neodvisno odlocanje?

28
Sklepi iz odlocb panelov

• 3. ali je ukrep sorazmeren z zasledovanim ciljem?
• Proporcionalnost, Least Drastic Means test
• Težave zaradi potrebe po karakterizaciji in
  vrednostni oceni morebitnih alternativnih
  ukrepov, ki bi bili sorazmerni
• Lahko pride do aksiomaticnega, silogisticnega
  odlocanja
• Pogosto paneli ne upoštevajo omejitev, ki
  enostavno ne omogocajo uporabe alternativnih,
  manj restriktivnih ukrepov!

29
Vprašanja glede znanstvene narave ocenjevanja
tveganj

• Del tega tudi ? Sporazum WTO o sanitarnih in
  fitosanitarnih standardih
• (Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and
  Phytosanitary Measures 1995)
• Namen ? vzpostaviti
• ?enoten?
• ?harmoniziran?
• ?ucinkovit?
• Sistem delovanja DC na podrocju ukrepov sanitarne
  in fitosanitarne narave

30
SPS sporazum

• Kaj so sanitarni in fitosanitarni ukrepi?
• 1. Sanitary or phytosanitary measure Any
  measure applied
• (a) to protect animal or plant life or health
  within the territory of the Member from risks
  arising from the entry, establishment or spread
  of pests, diseases, disease-carrying organisms or
  disease-causing organisms
• (b) to protect human or animal life or health
  within the territory of the Member from risks
  arising from additives, contaminants, toxins or
  disease-causing organisms in foods, beverages or
  feedstuffs
• (c) to protect human life or health within the
  territory of the Member from risks arising from
  diseases carried by animals, plants or products
  thereof, or from the entry, establishment or
  spread of pests or
• (d) to prevent or limit other damage within the
  territory of the Member from the entry,
  establishment or spread of pests.
• Sanitary or phytosanitary measures include all
  relevant laws, decrees, regulations, requirements
  and procedures including, inter alia, end product
  criteria processes and production methods
  testing, inspection, certification and approval
  procedures quarantine treatments including
  relevant requirements associated with the
  transport of animals or plants, or with the
  materials necessary for their survival during
  transport provisions on relevant statistical
  methods, sampling procedures and methods of risk
  assessment and packaging and labelling
  requirements directly related to food safety.

31
SPS sporazum

• Podrocje ocenjevanja/omejevanja tveganj (risk
  assessment)
• DC samostojno odlocajo o tveganjih in ukrepih za
  njihovo preprecevanje
• Razlika v percepcijah tveganj (politicni,
  ekonomski, družbeni vplivi) ?
• Potencialna omejevanja mednarodne trgovine
• Razlicni sistemi, metode ocenjevanja, omejevanja
  tveganj
• Risk assessment / Precautionary principle
• Zato ? SPS Agreement
• Nacelo nediskriminatornosti
• Dvotirni sistem standardov za ukrepe

32
SPS sporazum

• Nacelo nediskriminatornosti / sorazmernosti (2.
  clen SPS)
• Members have the right to take sanitary and
  phytosanitary measures necessary for the
  protection of human, animal or plant life or
  health, provided that such measures are not
  inconsistent with the provisions of this
  Agreement.
• 2. Members shall ensure that any sanitary or
  phytosanitary measure is applied only to the
  extent necessary to protect human, animal or
  plant life or health, is based on scientific
  principles and is not maintained without
  sufficient scientific evidence, except as
  provided for in paragraph 7 of Article 5.
• 3. Members shall ensure that their sanitary and
  phytosanitary measures do not arbitrarily or
  unjustifiably discriminate between Members where
  identical or similar conditions prevail,
  including between their own territory and that of
  other Members. Sanitary and phytosanitary
  measures shall not be applied in a manner which
  would constitute a disguised restriction on
  international trade.

33
SPS sporazum

• SPS sporazum uvaja dvotirni sistem dovoljenih
  ukrepov
• Harmonizacijski standard /Avtonomni standard
• 3. clen SPS (Harmonizacijski standard)
• (1) to harmonize sanitary and phytosanitary
  measures Members shall base their sanitary or
  phytosanitary measures on international
  standards, guidelines or recommendations, where
  they exist
• (2) Sanitary or phytosanitary measures which
  conform to international standards, guidelines or
  recommendations shall be deemed to be necessary
  to protect human, animal or plant life or health,
  and presumed to be consistent with the relevant
  provisions of this Agreement and of GATT 1994.

34
SPS sporazum

• SPS sporazum uvaja dvotirni sistem dovoljenih
  ukrepov
• Harmonizacijski standard /Avtonomni standard
• 3. clen SPS (Avtonomni standard)
• 3. Members may introduce or maintain sanitary or
  phytosanitary measures which result in a higher
  level of sanitary or phytosanitary protection
  than would be achieved by measures based on the
  relevant international standards, guidelines or
  recommendations, if there is a scientific
  justification, or as a consequence of the level
  of sanitary or phytosanitary protection a Member
  determines to be appropriate in accordance with
  the relevant provisions of paragraphs 1 through 8
  of Article 5.

35
SPS sporazum

• Temeljna težava (kot ste lahko ugotovili)
• Avtonomni standard
• SPS forsira harmonizacijo
• Možnost DC, da intenzivno odstopajo od mednarodno
  dogovorjenih standardov, je omejena.
• Beef Hormones
• Article 3.1 imposes an obligation on all Members
  to base their sanitary measures on international
  standards except as otherwise provided for in the
  SPS Agreement, and in particular in Article 3.3
  thereof. In this sense, Article 3.3 provides an
  exception to the general obligation contained in
  Article 3.1.
• Izrazito napeta intepretacija! -? sledi tudi -
  sicer nepravilna odlocitev panela, da je
  dokazno breme zato na toženi stranki

36
SPS sporazum

• Dodatna težava ? kdaj so standardi, ki odstopajo
  od mednarodnih, dovoljeni (poleg
  nediskriminacije)
• if there is a scientific justification
• Ni sporazuma o metodi znanstvene utemeljenosti
• 2 temeljni metodi ?
• Risk assessment
• Precautionary principle

37
SPS sporazum

• Risk assessment
• Klasicna, znanstvena metoda
• Znanost kot nevtralni arbiter
• Ni vrednot pri odlocanju
• Širši družbeni konsenz ni pomemben/potreben
• Širok manevrski prostor za potencialne kršitelje
  (multinacionalke)
• Temeljni kriteriji
• Hazard identification
• Dose-response evaluation
• Human exposure evaluation
• Risk characterization

38
SPS sporazum

• Precautionary principle
• RISK ASSESSMENT
• Upoštevanje družbenega konsenza
• Upoštevanje preferenc potencialno ogroženih
• Upoštevanje zgodovinskih, socialnih, politicnih
  parametrov
• Ketelson
• Those of us who support the Precautionary
  Principle do so in part because we perceive our
  democratic rights to a clean environment and
  health have been violatedThis technocratic
  process (risk assessment) purports to put the
  decisions into an objective framework but the
  process gives greater power to corporate
  interests and tends to violate individual and
  collective rights to health

39
SPS sporazum

• Pomanjkljivost ? odprta vrata za protekcionizem
• Ameriški pogled
• The Precautionary Principle is a nebulous
  doctrine developed by Europeans as a means to
  erect a trade barrier against any item that can
  be produced more efficiently in the United
  States.
• Evropski odgovor
• We do not spend our days in Brussels as some
  might think in Machiavellian plotting to apply
  precaution to the detriment of US businesses
  (Margot Wallstrom Head of European Union
  Environmental Commission)