Functional Anatomy

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Functional Anatomy

• Section One The Skeleton

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Functions of a Skeleton
The skeleton performs 5 basic functions
FUNCTION EXPLANATION EXAMPLES
MOVEMENT Where bones meet we form joints. In combination with muscles, we create movement. Bones move because of joints and muscles, e.g. elbow moved by biceps
PROTECTION Provide protection to vital organs Scapula lungs Skull brain
SUPPORT Give support for organs and tissue so they do not collapse. Spine supports the head and trunk
STORAGE Minerals are stored in bones Storage of calcium and potassium
SUPPLY Red and white blood cells are produced in bone marrow Femur produces red blood cells
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1.3 Axial and Appendicular Skeleton

• All the bones of the skeleton are divided into
  two main groups. These are known as
• Axial Skeleton
• Appendicular Skeleton
• AXIAL SKELETON
• Consists of those bones forming the central
  column of the body,
• i.e. spine, skull and ribcage.
• APPENDICULAR SKELETON
• Those bones that attach to the axial skeleton,
  i.e. shoulders, hips and the limbs.

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1.4 Classification of Bones
BONE CLASSIFICATION BASIC FUNCTION EXAMPLES
Long The length is greater than width Production of red blood cells and white blood cells. Movement. Humerus, femur, radius and ulna
Short Small of fine movements Carpals (wrist) Tarsals (ankle)
Irregular Movement support and muscle attachment Face and vertebrae
Flat Protection and attachment Shoulder blade and breastbone

• Bones are classified according to
• their shape.
• They fall into four basic
• categories
• Long bones
• Short bones
• Irregular bones
• Flat bones
• Using the table, fill in the basic
• function of each type of bone and
• provide some examples of these.

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On the skeleton, colour the short, flat, long and
irregular bones you can identify.
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• What do you notice about the location of most of
  the flat bones? Why might this be?
• Located around the main organs, e.g. brain,
  heart. To give
• protection.
• What do you notice about the location of most of
  the long bones? Why might this be?
• Located in legs and arms. These are the regions
  of most joints and therefore movement.

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1.5 Identifying Bones of the Skeleton

• As a pre-test, try naming as many bones as
  possible on the skeleton below. Use common or
  anatomical terms.

Cranium (skull)
Vertebrae cervical (neck)
Sternum (breastbone)
Ribs (ribcage)
Vertebrae lumbar (lower back)
Pelvis (hip) Ilium, Ischium Pubis
Metacarpals (palm)
Phalanges (fingers)
Tibia (shin)
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Maxilla (face)
Mandible (jaw)
Scapula (shoulder blade)
Clavicle (collarbone)
Ulna (forearm)
Humerus (upper arm)
Radius (forearm)
Femur (thigh)
Fibula (shin)
Patella (knee cap)
Tarsal (heel)
Metatarsals (foot)
Phalanges (toes)
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• Identify and explain the function of the
  following skeletal structures.

A. Cranium (common name skull) Designed to
protect the brain. Made up of a number of
inter-connecting bones.

• THE HEAD

A
B. Maxilla (common name face) Houses the eyes
and sinuses. Protects these features against
damage.
B
C
C. Mandible (common name jaw) Responsible for
talking, chewing etc.
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2. THE RIBCAGE
Ribs (common name ribs) 12 pairs in all.
Designed to protect the heart and lungs
Rib
3. THE CHEST
A. Sternum (common name breast bone
) Protects the heart and lungs. It is the bone
pressed on in C.P.R.
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• 4. THE SPINE

Cervical vertebrae. These are small delicate
bones responsible for neck movement. There are
seven bones in all.
Thoracic vertebrae. Allow ribs to attach to the
spine hence there are 12 of them (one for each
rib pair).
Lumbar vertebrae. These are the largest of the
vertebrae and are responsible for weight-bearing.
There are five in all.
The sacrum (upper) and coccyx (lower) are a
series of fused (joined) bones that help form the
pelvis.
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• What do the shapes of the bones tell you about
  their function?
• Those that are larger have a roll in weight or
  load bearing
• e.g. lumbar and thoracic. Smaller ones are
  important for
• movement e.g. cervical.

5. THE SHOULDER
A. Scapula (common name shoulder blade
) Protects the lungs. Forms shoulder joint. B.
Clavicle (common name collarbone) Holds the
shoulder in place. Easily broken.
B
A
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• 6. THE ARM

A. Humerus (common name upper arm ) Prime
function is movement. B. Radius (common name
Forearm ) Prime function is movement, always
located on thumb-side of forearm. C. Ulna
(common name forearm ) Prime function is
movement. D. Carpels (common name wrist
) Prime function is movement. E. Metacarpels
(common name palms ) Prime function is
movement. F. Phalanges (common name Fingers
) Prime function is movement.
A
B
C
D
E
F
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• 7. THE PELVIS

A. Ilium (common name pelvis) Protects
intestines B. Pubis ( common name
pelvis) Forms front of pelvis. Has to separate in
childbirth. C. Ischium (common name
pelvis) Forms the boney bum.
A
B
C
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A. Femur (common name thigh ) Largest bone in
the body, responsible for support and
movement. B. Patella (common name knee cap
) Protects the knee joint. C. Tibia (common name
shin ) Support and movement. D. Fibula (common
name shin) Thinner bone of leg. Support and
movement. E. Tarsels (common name ankle) Bones
of the ankle and heel. Support and balance. F.
Metatarsels (common name foot) Form the sole
of the foot. Support and balance. G. Phalanges
(common name toes) Support, movement and
balance.

• 8. THE LEG

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Functional Anatomy

• Section Two Terms of Direction

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2.2 The Anatomical Position

• In order to explain the positioning of bones,
  organs, muscles and the like on the human body,
  anatomists have agreed on a standardised position
  for the human body in all cases. This is known as
  the anatomical position.
• THE ANATOMICAL POSITION
• There are four key features to note
• Palms face forward
• Body is upright
• Thumbs point outward so radius and ulna and
  uncrossed
• Face is forward

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• The terms of direction in the next section are
  all with respect to this position.
• Why is it important to always talk about the
  position of organs, bones and muscles in or on
  the human body with respect to the anatomical
  position?
• This enables everyone to talk from the same point
  of view regardless of their profession or level
  of expertise.

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2.3 Anatomical Terms of Direction

• These refer to the position of parts of the body,
  or of one part with respect to another.

Term Definition Examples
Anterior On the FRONT of the body or limb 1. The chest is on the anterior of the body 2. The face is an anterior aspect of the head.
Posterior On the BACK of the body or limb 1. The buttocks are on the posterior of the body 2. The calf muscles are on the posterior of the leg
Superior Above or on top of 1. The cervical vertebrae are superior to the thoracic vertebrae 2. The thoracic vertebrae are superior to the lumbar vertebrae
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Term Definition Examples
Inferior Below or beneath 1. Thoracic vertebrae are inferior to the cervical vertebrae 2. The lumbar vertebrae are inferior to the thoracic vertebrae
Medial Nearer the midline of the body The big toe is on the medial aspect of the foot 2. The little finger is on the medial aspect of the hand
Lateral Further away from the midline of the body 1. Little toe is on the lateral aspect of the foot. 2. The thumb is on the lateral aspect of the hand
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Term Definition Examples
Distal Further away from the body. Usually refers to the limbs. 1. Wrist is distal to the elbow 2. Elbow joint is distal to the shoulder joint
Proximal Nearer the body. Usually refers to the limbs. Elbow is proximal to the wrist joint 2. Shoulder joint is proximal to the elbow
Prone Face down A press-up is on the PRONE position
Supine Face up A sit-up is on the SUPINE position
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Term Definition Examples
Deep When a muscle is BENEATH another with respect to the skin surface The ilio psoas is a deep muscle of the hip
Superficial On the surface of the body or limb Pectoralis major is a superficial muscle of the chest
This exercise has shown that the terms of
direction compliment each other. Complete the
list below by placing the opposite term next to
the one provided. Superior - Inferior
Anterior - Posterior Proximal - Distal
Medial - Lateral Deep - Superficial
Supine - Prone
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Functional Anatomy

• Section Three The Joints

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3.2. Overview of Joint Types

• There are three broad categories of joint type in
  the body. They are classed according to the
  degree of movement possible.
• The three categories are
• 1. Immovable Also known as fibrous joints
• 2. Slightly movable Also known as cartilaginous
  joints
• 3. Freely movable Also known as synovial joints
• We shall look at all these categories in turn.

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3.3 Fibrous Joints

• These are non-movable joints. They are the result
  of tough fibrous tissue forming where the two
  bone ends meet.
• What is the function of a fibrous joint?
• To provide protection.
• Examples include
• 1. Skull
• 2. Pelvis

Fibrous joint
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3.4 Cartilaginous Joint

• These are slightly-movable joints. They are the
  result of cartilage forming where the two bone
  meet. This gives a fair degree of resilience.
• What is the function of a cartilaginous joint?
• To act as shock absorbers.
• Examples include
• 1. Invertebral discs
• 2. Ribs to sternum
• 3.Where pubic bones meet

Cartilaginous Joints
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3.5 Synovial Joint

• These are freely movable joints. The only
  limitation in range of movement is as a result of
  bone shape at the joint, and ligaments.
• What is the primary function of a synovial joint?
• To provide movement.
• All synovial joints follow the same basic
  structure as shown

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• The key components of your illustration have
  important roles to play in maintaining the
  structure of the joint.
• Ligaments Join bone to bone for stability
• 2. Capsule Provides stability and protection from
  infection
• 3. Cartilage Reduce wear and tear on bones
• 4. Synovial Fluid Lubricates the joint and
  provides shock absorption
• 5. Synovial Membrane Produces synovial fluid
• In some joints, for example the knee, there are
  pads of fat and/or discs of cartilage to further
  help absorb shock and reduce general wear and
  tear.

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3.6 Types of Synovial Joints

• Synovial joints can be divided into six basic
  types. The types are governed by the type of
  movement or movements they allow.
• The six basic types are
• Gliding
• Hinge
• Pivot
• Condyloid
• Saddle
• Ball and Socket

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1. Gliding

• Definition The bone surfaces are small and flat,
  or slightly concave and one bones slides over the
  other.
• Examples
• 1. Carpals and tarsals
• 2. Ribs and vertebrae
• 3. Scapula and ribs
• Movements Only slight movement is possible due
  to the restrictions of attached ligaments.
• Movements possible are
• 1. side to side (abduction / adduction)
• 2. Back and forth (extension/flexion)

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2. Hinge

• Definition Two bones join in such a way that
  movement is possible only in one direction,
  usually at right angles to the bones.
• Examples
• 1. Elbow
• 2. Knee
• 3. Ankle
• Movements A uniaxial joint allowing movement in
  only one direction
• The only movement possible is
• Back and forth (extension/flexion)

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3. Pivot

• Definition A joint constructed in such a way
  that rotation only is possible (usually about
  the long axis of the bone)
• Examples
• 1. Atlas and axis of neck
• 2. Radius and humerous
• Movements A uniaxial joint allowing movement in
  only one direction
• The only movement possible is
• Rotation

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4. Condyloid

• Definition Also known as an ellipsoid joint. The
  bone ends make the shape of an ellipse.
• Examples
• 1. Carpals and radius
• 2. Metacarpals and phalange
• Movements A biaxial joint allowing movement in
  two main directions.
• The movements possible are
• 1. Back and forth (extension/flexion)
• 2. Side to side (abduction/adduction)
• 3. Some Circumduction

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5. Saddle

• Definition The bone ends are shaped like a rider
  on a saddle
• Example
• 1. Carpal/metacarpal of thumb
• Movements A biaxial joint allowing movement in
  two main directions.
• Movements possible are
• 1. side to side (abduction / adduction)
• 2. Back and forth (extension/flexion)

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6. Ball and Socket

• Definition A ball-shaped bone end fits into a
  socket or cup-shaped bone.
• Examples
• 1. Hip
• 2. Shoulder
• Movements A multiaxial joint allowing
• movement in many directions around the joint.
• The movements possible are
• 1. Back and forth (extension/flexion)
• 2. Side to side (abduction/adduction)
• 3. Rotation
• 4. Circumduction

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• The shoulder joint is the most freely moving ball
  and socket joint we have. The illustration may
  help you with your answer.
• Why is the shoulder joint so freely moving?
• Because the socket is shallow.
• What do you suppose is the risk of such a freely
  moving joint?
• It is easy to dislocate.

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3.7. Movements at Synovial Joints

• Just as we learnt a set of terms to describe the
  positioning of bones, muscles and organs in the
  body, so we have a set of terms to describe how
  joints move.

Term Definition Examples
Flexion Bending or decreasing the angle between two bones
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Term Definition Examples
Extension Straightening or increasing the angle between two bones
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Term Definition Examples
Abduction Moving a limb or part of a limb away from the midline of the body Moving outwards on a star jump
Adduction Moving a limb or part of a limb towards the midline of the body Bringing the limbs back together in a star jump
Circumduction A combination of flexion, extension, abduction and adduction. The movement of the limb resembles the shape of a cone The arm stroke in Butterfly
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Term Definition Examples
Rotation Twisting of a limb about its long axis Turning the head Twisting the trunk
Supination Movement of the hand into a palm-up position Holding a bowl of soup Turning a card over Turning a page in a book
Pronation Movement of the hand into a palm-down position tipping the soup out Turning a card face down Closing a book
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Term Definition Examples
Inversion Movement of the sole of the foot inward
Eversion Movement of the sole of the foot outward
Dorsi flexion Movement of the top of the foot upward, closer to the shin
Plantar flexion Movement of the sole of the foot downward
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Underarm Volley ball serve
Frame Joint Bones at the joint Movement or Position
A Knee Femur (thigh) Tibia (shin) Flexion
A Trunk (at hip) Pelvis (hip) Femur Flexion
A ? D Right Shoulder Scapula (shoulder blade) Humerus (upper arm) Flexion
A ? C Right Hip Pelvis (hip) Femur Extension
A ? D Right Foot (at ankle) Tibia, Fibula (shin) Tarsals (ankle) Plantarflexion
A ? D Right Knee Femur Tibia Extension
A ? D Right Hand (at wrist) Radius Ulna (forearm) Carpals (wrist) Slight (flexion)
D Right Elbow Radius, Ulna Humerus Extension
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Functional Anatomy

• Section Four The Muscles

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4.2 Identifying Muscles
Trapezius
Deltoid
Biceps
Triceps
Pectoralis Major
Latissimus Dorsi
Rectus Abdominus
Gluteus Maximus
Hamstrings
Quadriceps
Gastrocnemius
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4.3 Guide to Individual Muscles

• A PRIME MOVERS OF THE TRUNK
• Rectus adbominus
• Location A group of two muscles running
  lengthwise along the medial aspect of the
  abdomen. They are rather like two columns of
  muscle running up either side of the belly
  button.
• They run from the pubis (pelvis) to the
  cartilage of the 5th, 6th and 7th ribs.
• Movements Rectus abdominus allows two basic
• movements.
• 1. Flexion of the trunk
• 2. Lateral flexion of the trunk
• Application Typical sporting actions include
• 1. Sit ups
• 2. Cartwheels
• 3. Pike in diving

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• A PRIME MOVERS OF THE TRUNK
• 2. Erector Spinae Group
• Location One of the main muscles located in
  the lower back and one of the few visible. It
  runs from the pelvis to the lumbar vertebrae.
• Movements Erector spinae group allows two basic
  movements.
• They are
• 1. Extension of the spine
• 2. Lateral flexion of the trunk
• Application
• Typical sporting actions include
• 1. Straightening out from a pike
• 2. Rowing
• 3. Swimming (body position)

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• B PRIME MOVERS OF THE SHOULDER
• 1. Trapezius
• Location A large triangular muscle located on
  the posterior aspect of the body.
• It runs in a triangular shape from the base of
  the skull, the 7th cervical vertebrae and all
  the thoracic vertebrae, to the scapula and
  clavicle.
• Movements Trapezius allows four basic
  movements.
• They are
• Raise the head
• Pull the shoulders back
• Raise the scapula
• 4. Drop the scapula
• Application Typical sporting actions include
• 1. Pulling shoulder when throwing
• 2. Rowing
• 3. Looking up in basketball

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• B PRIME MOVERS OF THE SHOULDER
• 2. Latissimus Dorsi
• Location The broadest muscle of the back. It
  forms the
• back of the armpit.
• This is a large triangular muscle which covers
  
• the lumbar and lower thoracic region of the
  back.
• It runs from the lower thoracic and lumber
  regions,
• to the anterior aspect of the humerus
• Movements Latissimus dorsi allows three basic
  movements.
• They are
• 1. Adduction of the upper arm
• 2. Extension of the shoulder
• 3. Internal rotation of the shoulder
• How can latissimus dorsi allow internal rotation
  of the
• shoulder to occur if it is a muscle located on
  the back?
• Because it attaches to the humerus

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• B PRIME MOVERS OF THE SHOULDER
• 3. Deltoid
• Location A triangular shaped muscle located
  on the superior aspect of the shoulder i.e.
  above the shoulder joint
• It runs from the scapular and clavicle to
  attach at the humerus
• Movements Deltoid allows four basic movements.
• They are
• 1. Flexion of the shoulder
• 2. Extension of the shoulder
• 3. Abduction of the arm
• 4. Rotation of the shoulder
• Application Typical sporting actions include
• 1. Throwing
• 2. Punching
• 3. Swimming

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• B PRIME MOVERS OF THE SHOULDER
• 3. Pectoralis Major
• Location A large triangular muscle located on
  the chest.
• It runs from the clavicle, sternum and the 6th
  rib, to the humerus.
• Movements Pectoralis major allows three basic
  movements.
• These are
• 1. Flexion of the shoulder
• 2. Abduction of the arm
• 3. Rotation (internal) of the shoulder
• Application Typical sporting actions include
• 1. Throwing
• 2. Punching
• 3. Press-ups

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• C PRIME MOVERS OF THE ELBOW
• 1. Biceps Brachii
• Location A two-headed muscle (biceps) located
  on the anterior aspect of the humerus
• It runs from the scapular to the upper aspect
  of the radius
• Movements Biceps allows two basic movements.
• They are
• 1. Flexion of the elbow
• 2. Flexion of the shoulder
• Application Typical sporting actions include
• 1. Biceps curl
• 2. Rowing
• 3. Recovery in breaststroke

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• C PRIME MOVERS OF THE ELBOW
• 1. Triceps Brachii
• Location A large muscle located on the
  posterior aspect
• of the humerus.
• It runs from the scapular, over the posterior
  aspect of the humerus, to the upper part of
  the ulna.
• Movements Triceps allows two basic movements.
• These are
• 1. Extension of the elbow
• 2. Extension of the shoulder
• Application Typical sporting actions include
• 1. Karate chop
• 2. Press-up
• 3. Punching

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• D PRIME MOVERS OF THE WRIST
• 1. Flexor digitorum
• Location This is one of the main gripping
  muscles of the anterior aspect of the forearm.
• It runs mainly from the proximal aspect of the
  radius and ulna, over the anterior of the
  forearm, to attach to the fingers.
• Movements
• Flexor digitorum has two basic movements.
• 1. Flex the fingers (make a fist)
• 2. Flex the wrist
• Application Typical sporting actions include
• Punching
• 2. Hold a racquet
• 3. Wrist dink in a set shot (volleyball)

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• D PRIME MOVERS OF THE WRIST
• 2. Extensor digitorum
• Location This is one of the muscles in direct
  opposition to the flexor digitorum. It is located
  on the posterior aspect of the forearm.
• It runs over the posterior of the forearm, to
  attach to the fingers.
• Movements Extensor digitorum allows two basic
  movements.
• 1. Extend the fingers
• 2. Extend the wrist
• Application Typical sporting actions
• 1. Karate chop
• 2. Fending in tackling
• 3. Set shot in (volleyball)

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• E PRIME MOVERS OF THE HIP AND KNEE
• 1. Illiopsoas
• Location This is a group of three muscles
  located deep inside the hip region.
• It runs from the lumbar vertebrae and pelvis to
  the upper femur.
• Movements Illiopsoas allows one basic movement.
• This is
• 1. Flexion of the hip
• Application Typical sporting actions include
• 1. Kicking
• 2. Running
• 3. Cycling

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• E PRIME MOVERS OF THE HIP AND KNEE
• 2. Gluteus Maximus
• Location This is a the large fleshy muscle
  that makes up your backside. You are probably
  sitting on it right now! It is an extremely
  powerful muscle.
• It is located on the posterior aspect of the
  hip running from the ilium (pelvis), sacrum and
  coccyx to the upper third of the femur.
• Movements Gluteus maximus
• allows three basic movements.
• 1. Extension of the leg
• 2. Abduction of the leg
• 3. External rotation of the leg
• (rotating outwards)
• Application Typical sporting actions include
• 1. Kicking
• 2. Running
• 3. Jumping

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• E PRIME MOVERS OF THE HIP AND KNEE
• 3. Quadriceps
• Location This is a group of four (quad)
  muscles located on the anterior aspect of the
  thigh.
• The four muscles making up the quadriceps
  group are
• 1. Rectus femoris
• 2. Vastus medialis
• 3. Vastus lateralis
• 4. Vastus intermedius (not shown)
• Movements Quadriceps allows
• two basic movements.
• 1. Extension of the knee
• 2. Flexion of the hip
• Application Typical sporting actions include
• Kicking
• Running
• Jumping

The Vastus intermedius is not shown because it
lies under the Rectus femoris, so is not visible.
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• Consider the illustration. Label the muscles of
  the quadriceps group you can identify.

Rectus femoris
Vastus lateralis
Vastus Medialis
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• E PRIME MOVERS OF THE HIP AND KNEE
• 3. Hamstrings
• Location This is a group of three muscles
  located on the posterior aspect of the thigh.
• Since they are in direct opposition to the
  quadriceps and are generally weaker they are
  prone to injury.
• The three muscles making up the hamstrings
  group are
• 1. Semitendinosus
• 2. Biceps femoris
• 3. Semimembranosis
• Movements Hamstrings allows two basic
  movements.
• These are
• 1. Extension of the hip
• 2. Flexion of the knee
• Application Typical sporting actions include
• 1. Kicking
• 2. Running
• 3. Jumping

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• F PRIME MOVERS OF THE ANLKE
• 1. Gastroncnemius
• Location This is a the large fleshy muscle
  located on the posterior aspect of the lower
  leg.
• It runs from the distal aspect of the femur to
  the tarsal's (heel) via the Achilles tendon.
• Movements Gastrocnemius allows two basic
  movements.
• These are
• 1. Knee flexion
• 2. Plantar flexion
• Application Typical sporting actions include
• 1. Kicking
• 2. Pointing toes
• 3. Jumping

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• F PRIME MOVERS OF THE ANLKE
• 2. Soleus
• Location This muscle lies beneath
  gastrocnemius and serves largely the same
  function. It shares the Achilles tendon with
  gastrocnemius.
• It runs from the proximal aspect of both tibia
  and fibula to the same position as
  gastrocnemius on the heel
• Movements Soleus allows one basic movements.
• 1. Plantar flexion
• Application Typical sporting actions
• include
• 1. Kicking
• 2. Pointing toes
• 3. Jumping

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• F PRIME MOVERS OF THE ANLKE
• 3. Tibialis anterior
• Location This muscle is located on the
  anterior aspect of the lower leg.
• It lies mainly over the tibia and can be felt
  running along its sharp edge.
• It runs from the proximal aspect of the tibia to
  the toes.
• Movements Tibialis anterior allows two basic
  movements.
• 1. Dorsi flexion
• 2. Inversion
• Application Typical sporting actions include
• Passing with the outside
• of the foot (soccer)
• Kicking (recovery)
• 3. Rowing

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4.4 Agonists and Antagonists

• When muscles create movement, they tend to work
  in pairs.
• When one muscle (or group), contracts to generate
  the
• movement, the opposing muscle (or group) relaxes.
• This is known as Reciprocal Inhibition.
• Each muscle in the pair is labelled as either the
  agonist or
• antagonist.
• Agonist
• The muscle that produces the movement.
• Agonists are also referred to as prime movers.
  Why?
• Because they are the main muscle producing
  movement (prime main).
• Antagonist
• This muscle that opposes motion

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• Consider the example of a bicep curl.
• The movement occurring at the elbow is flexion
• The agonist muscle would be biceps
• The antagonist muscle would be triceps
• The prime mover would be biceps
• When the person extends the arm i.e. to lower the
  weight
• The agonist muscle would be triceps
• The antagonist muscle would be biceps
• What other role does the antagonist muscle play
  in the lowering of the weight?
• Controls the speed at which weight is lowered in
  order to help prevent injury.