Anatomy and Physiology

1
Anatomy and Physiology

• Chapter 7
• Bone Tissue
• Chapter 8
• The Skeletal System

2
Targets

• 1. Name the tissues and organs that compose the
  skeletal system.
• 2. State the functions of the skeletal system.
• 3. Describe four types of bones classified by
  shape.
• 4. List and describe the cells, fibers, and
  ground substances of bone tissue.
• 5. Compare the histology of the two types of bone
  tissue.
• 6. Distinguish between the two types of bone
  marrow.
• 7.Define and describe the axial and appendicular
  skeletons.
• 8. State the approximate number of bones in the
  adult body.
• 9. Define terms that denote surface features of
  bone.
• 10. Identify and name the bones of the skull and
  their anatomical features.
• 11. Describe the development of the skull from
  infancy including fontanels.
• 12. Identify and describe the general features of
  the vertebral column.
• 13. Describe the special features of vertebrae in
  different regions of the vertebral column and
  discuss the functional significance of the
  differences.
• 14. Describe the anatomy of the sternum and ribs.
• 15. Identify and describe the features of the
  bones in the pectoral girdle, and upper limb.
• 16. Identify and describe the features of the
  bones in the pelvic girdle, and the lower limb.

3
Introduction

• Osteology is the study of bones
• Skeletal system consists of bones, cartilage, and
  ligaments
• Bones are very active connective tissues
• Each bone is made up of several types of tissue
• Bone is an organ
• Constantly remodels

4
Bone Structure

• Bones differ in size and shape
• Long levers
• femur
• Short move in multiple directions
• carpals
• Flat protect underlying tissue/organs
• patella
• Irregular dont fall in any other category
• vertebrae
• The shape of the bone allows it to function as it
  should

5
Compact Bone

• Hard
• The surface of bones
• Cylinders formed from layers (lamellae) of matrix
  around central canal (osteonic canal)

6
Spongy Bone

• Porous lattice of bony trabeculae
• Trabeculae are oriented along lines of stress
• Provides strength with little weight
• More vascularized
• Spongy with few osteons, not arranged in circular
  canals
• Interior of bones and in epiphysis

7
Compact vs. Spongy

• Compact
• In osteons
• Found in diaphysis
• Spongy
• Not arranged concentrically
• In trabeculae
• Found in epiphysis and major portions of bones

8
Bone Matrix

• Composite of collagen fibers, proteins, and
  minerals
• Minerals enable bones to resist compression and
  support weight
• Proteins enable bones to bend slightly without
  breaking

9
Parts of a Long Bone

• Epiphysis - expanded ends of the bone that forms
  the joint w/adjacent bones
• Covered w/articular cartilage (hyaline cartilage)
  
• Filled w/spongy bone
• Reduces the weight of the skeleton
• Diaphysis - shaft of the bone
• Wall is made up of compact bone
• Provides strength and resistance to bending
• Contains a hollow medullary cavity
• lined w/endosteum
• filled w/yellow marrow
• Periosteum is the tough layer of vascular
  connective tissue
• Covers the bone and is continuous w/ligaments and
  tendons
• Bony processes or grooves indicate places of
  attachment for muscles

10
Osseous Tissue

• Contains four types of cells
• Stem cells (osteogenic cells)
• Osteoblasts
• Matrix depositing cells
• Osteocytes
• Strain detectors
• Enclosed in lacunae
• Osteoclasts
• Matrix dissolving cells

11
Microscopic Structure of Bone

• Bone cells (osteocytes) are located w/in the
  lacunae (bony chambers)
• Lacunae lie in concentric circles around central
  canals
• These canals contains blood vessels and nerves
• In compact bone, osteocytes and intercellular
  material are organized into osteons around a
  central canal
• Osteons are cylinder-shaped units
• Central (osteonic) canals contain blood vessels
  and nerves
• Extend longitudinally through the bone
• Connected by perforating canals that travel
  transversely

12
Bone Development and Growth

• Bones in the fetus are formed by replacing
  connective tissue (ossification)
• Some form w/in sheet-like layers of connective
  tissue (intramembranous bones)
• Some replace masses of cartilage (endochondral
  bones)
• Most bones are these

13
Intramembranous Bones

• Flat bones of the skull
• Develop from layers of connective tissue
  (embryonic mesenchyme)
• Cells of the membranous connective tissue that
  lie outside the developing bone give rise to the
  periosteum
• Osteoblasts deposit an organic matrix that
  transforms the mesenchyme into soft collagenous
  osteoid tissue
• Osteoblasts then deposit calcium salts that
  harden the osteoid tissue and transform it to
  spongy bone
• The surface of this bone is gradually filled with
  calcified matrix to become compact bone

14
Endochondral Bones

• Most bones are these
• First develop as hyaline cartilage and then are
  replaced by bone
• Begins w/enlargement of lacunae and death of
  chondrocytes in the primary ossification center
• Primary ossification center then hollows out to
  from primary marrow space
• Osteoblasts populate this space and create spongy
  bone
• Secondary ossification centers appear in the
  epiphysis
• Mature bones remodel throughout life

15
Endochondral Bone
16
Draw a long bone

• Draw the structure of a long bone including the
  following structures
• Epiphyseal disks
• Epiphyses
• Diaphysis
• Articular cartilage
• Spongy bone
• Compact bone
• Medullary canal
• Periosteum

17
Homeostasis of Bone Tissue

• Osteoclasts tear down bone
• Osteoblasts build bone
• An average of 3-5 of bone is replaced yearly

18
Bone Development and Repair

• d/o the following
• Nutrition
• Need Ca, P, and other minerals
• Need vitamin A and D
• Hormone
• Growth hormones etc.
• Exercise
• Stressing the bones
• Aging
• Loss of Ca as age increases

19
Bone Functions

• Bone has many functions including
• Support and protection
• Movement
• Blood cell formation
• Storage of inorganic salts
• Lg. amounts of CaPO4
• Sm. amounts of Mg, Na, K, CO3-2

20
Support and Function

• Bones give shape to the head, thorax, and limbs
• Bones of the pelvis and lower limbs provide
  support
• Bones of the head protect the brain, ears, and
  eyes

21
Movement

• Bones act as levers
• Move against resistance

22
Blood Cell Formation

• Two kinds of marrow occupy the medullary cavities
  of bone
• Red marrow
• Functions in formation of RBC, WBC, and platelets
  
• Found in spongy bone
• Yellow marrow
• Stores fat
• Occupies cavities of most bones

23
Storage of Inorganic Salts

• Stored in the matrix of bone in the form of
  calcium phosphate
• 70 of weight of bone matrix
• Calcium is released from the bone when the blood
  levels are low
• Calcium is stored under the influence of
  calcitonin (parathyroid hormone) when blood
  levels are high
• Bone also stores Mg, Na, K, and carbonate ions
• Bones can also accumulate harmful elements
• Lead, radium, and strontium

24
Skeletal Organization

• 206 total bones
• Axial skeleton
• Consists of skull, hyoid bone, vertebral column,
  ribs and sternum
• Appendicular skeleton
• Pectoral girdle
• Scapula and clavicle
• Upper limbs
• Humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals,
  phalanges
• Pelvic girdle
• Coccyx, sacrum
• Lower limbs
• Femur, tibia, fibula, patella, tarsals,
  metatarsals, and phalanges
• Skeletal Video

25
Surface Features of Bones
26
Skull

• 22 bones joined together by sutures
• Cranial bones surround cranial cavity
• 8 bones in contact with meninges
• calvaria (skullcap) forms roof and walls
• Facial bones support teeth and form nasal cavity
  and orbit
• 14 bones with no direct contact with brain or
  meninges
• attachment of facial and jaw muscles

27
Cranium

• Encloses and protects the brain
• Provides attachments for muscles
• Contains air-filled sinuses
• That reduce weight
• Includes
• Frontal bone
• Parietal bone (2)
• Occipital bone
• Temporal bone (2)
• Sphenoid bone
• Ethmoid bone

28
Facial Bones

• Maxilla (2) form the upper jaw
• Hard palate, maxillary sinuses
• Palatine bone (2) L-shaped bones located behind
  maxilla
• Form floor of the nasal cavity and hard palate
• Zygomatic bone (2) make up the cheek bones
• Form zygomatic arch w/the temporal bones
• Lacrimal bone (2) form part of the medial
  walls of the orbits
• Nasal bone (2) form bridge of the nose
• Inferior nasal conchae (2) scroll-shaped bones
  that support mucous membranes w/in the nasal
  cavity
• Vomer makes up a portion of the nasal septum
• Mandible lower jaw bone
• Form the basic face and provide attachments for
  muscles of mastication and expression

29
Frontal Bone

• Forms forehead and part of the roof of the
  cranium
• Forms roof of the orbit
• Contains frontal sinus

30
Parietal Bone

• Cranial roof and part of its lateral walls
• Bordered by 4 sutures
• coronal, sagittal, lambdoid and squamous
• Temporal lines of temporalis muscle

Temporal lines
31
Temporal Bone

• Lateral wall and part of floor of cranial cavity
• squamous part
• zygomatic process
• mandibular fossa and TMJ
• tympanic part
• external auditory meatus
• styloid process
• mastoid part
• mastoid process
• mastoiditis from ear infection

32
Petrous Portion of Temporal Bone

• Part of cranial floor
• separates middle from posterior cranial fossa
• Houses middle and inner ear cavities
• receptors for hearing and sense of balance
• internal auditory meatus opening for CN VII
  (vestibulocochlear nerve)

33
Right Temporal Bone
34
Openings in Temporal Bone

• Carotid canal
• passage for internal carotid artery supplying the
  brain
• Jugular foramen
• irregular opening between temporal and occipital
  bones
• passageway for drainage of blood from brain to
  internal jugular vein

35
Occipital Bone

• Rear and base of skull
• Foramen magnum holds spinal cord
• Skull rests on atlas at occipital condyles

36
Sphenoid Bone

• Lesser wing

• Greater wing

• Body of sphenoid

• Medial and lateral pterygoid processes

37
Sphenoid Bone

• Body of the sphenoid
• sella turcica
• houses pituitary gland
• Lesser wing
• optic foramen
• Greater wing
• foramen rotundum and ovale for brs. trigeminal
  nerve

38
Sphenoid Bone

• Sphenoid sinus

39
Ethmoid Bone

• Between the orbital cavities
• Lateral walls and roof nasal cavity
• Cribriform plate and crista galli
• Ethmoid air cells form ethmoid sinus
• Perpendicular plate forms part of nasal septum
• Concha on lateral wall

40
Ethmoid Bone

• Superior and middle concha

• Perpendicular plate of nasal septum

41
Maxillary Bones

• Forms upper jaw
• alveolar processes are bony pointsbetween teeth
• alveolar sockets hold teeth
• Forms inferomedial wall of orbit
• infraorbital foramen
• Forms anterior 2/3sof hard palate

42
Locations of Paranasal Sinuses

• Maxillary sinus fills maxillae bone
• Other bones containing sinuses are frontal,
  ethmoid and sphenoid.

43
Palatine Bones

• L-shaped bone
• Posterior 1/3 of the hard palate
• Part of lateral nasal wall
• Part of the orbital floor

44
Zygomatic Bones

• Forms angles of the cheekbones and part of
  lateral orbital wall
• Zygomatic arch is formed from temporal process of
  zygomatic bone and zygomatic process of temporal
  bone

45
Lacrimal Bones

• Form part of medial wall of each orbit
• Lacrimal fossa houses lacrimal sac in life
• tears collect in lacrimal sac and drain into
  nasal cavity

46
Nasal Bones

• Forms bridge of nose and supports cartilages of
  nose
• Often fractured by blow to the nose

47
Inferior Nasal Conchae

• A separate bone
• Not part of ethmoid like the superior and middle
  concha or turbinates

48
Vomer

• Inferior half of the nasal septum
• Supports cartilage of nasal septum

49
Mandible

• Only movable bone
• jaw joint between mandibular fossaand condyloid
  process
• Holds the lower teeth
• Attachment of muscles of mastication
• temporalis muscle onto coronoid process
• masseter muscle onto angle of mandible
• Mandibular foramen
• Mental foramen

50
Mandible
51
Bones Associated With Skull

• Auditory ossicles
• malleus, incus, and stapes
• Hyoid bone
• suspended from styloid process of skull by muscle
  and ligament

52
Skull in Infancy and Childhood

• Spaces between unfused bones called fontanels
• filled with fibrous membrane
• allow shifting of bones during birth and growth
  of brain
• Is incompletely developed
• Features fontanels (soft spots)
• Allow passage through birth canal
• Other features include
• Small face
• Prominent forehead
• Large orbits
• 2 frontal bones fuse by age six (metopic suture)
• Skull reaches adult size by 8 or 9
• Animation - Skull

53
Vertebral Column

• From skull to pelvis
• Forms the vertical axis of the skeleton
• Composed of 26 vertebrae
• Separated by intervertebral disks
• Vertebrae support the weight of the head and
  trunk
• Provide attachments for muscles
• Intervertbral foramina provides passageways for
  spinal nerves
• Includes five regions
• Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, coccyx

54
General Structure of Vertebra

• Body
• Vertebral foramen form vertebral canal
• Neural arch
• 2 lamina
• 2 pedicles
• Processes
• spinous, transverse and articular

55
Intervertebral Foramen and Discs

• Intervertebral foramen
• Notches between adjacent vertebrae
• passageway for nerves
• Intervertebral discs
• bind vertebrae together
• absorb shock
• gelatinous nucleus pulposus surrounded by anulus
  fibrosus (ring of fibrocartilage)
• herniated disc pressures spinal nerve or cord

56
Atlas and Axis

• Atlas (C1) supports the skull
• concave superior articular facet
• nod your head in yes movement
• ring surrounding large vertebral foramen
• anterior and posterior arch
• no vertebral body
• Axis (C2)
• dens or odontoid process is held in place inside
  the vertebral foramen of the atlas by ligaments
• allows rotation of head -- no

57
Cervical Region

• 7 bones
• Smallest of the vertebrae
• Comprise the neck
• Support the head
• Small body and larger vertebral foramen
• Transverse process short with transverse foramen
  for protection of vertebral arteries
• Bifid or forked spinous process in C2 to C6

58
Thoracic Region

• 12 bones
• Spinous processes are pointed and angled downward
• Lack transverse foramin
• Larger body than cervical but smaller than lumbar
• Articulate w/the ribs
• Rib attachment
• costal facets on vertebral body and at ends of
  transverse processes for articulation of ribs

59
Lumbar Region

• 5 bones
• Largest vertebrae
• Support the weight of the body
• Short, blunt, horizontal spinous processes
• Lack transverse foramin
• lumbar region resistant to twisting movements

60
Saccrum

• Triangular structure at the base of the vertebral
  column
• 5 sacral vertebrae fuse by age 26
• Anterior surface
• smooth and concave
• sacral foramina were intervertebral foramen
• Provide passage for nerves and blood vessels
• 4 transverse lines indicate line of fusion of
  vertebrae

61
Coccyx

• Lowermost portion of the vertebral column
• Single, small bone
• 4 vertebrae fused by 30
• Co1 to Co4
• Attachment site for muscles of pelvic floor
• Fractured by fall or during childbirth

62
Thoracic Cage

• Consists of thoracic vertebrae, sternum and ribs
• Attachment site for pectoral girdle and many limb
  muscles
• Protects many organs
• Rhythmically expanded by respiratory muscles to
  draw air into the lungs

63
Rib Structure
Tubercle Head

• Flat blade called a shaft
• inferior margin has costal groove for nerves and
  vessels
• Proximal head and tubercle are connected by neck
• Articulation
• head with body of thoracic vertebrae
• tubercle with transverse process

64
Ribs

• 12 pair
• 1-7 true ribs
• Join the sternum directly
• 8-12 false ribs
• 8-10 pair are vertebrochondral
• 11-12 floating ribs

65
Sternum

• Breastbone
• Located along the anterior midline of the
  thoracic cage
• Articulates w/clavicle
• Consists of three parts
• Upper manubrium
• Middle body
• Lower xiphoid process

66
Pectoral Girdle

• Attaches upper extremity to the body
• Scapula and clavicle
• Clavicle attaches medially to the sternum and
  laterally to the scapula
• sternoclavicular joint
• acromioclavicular joint
• Scapula articulates with the humerus
• humeroscapular or shoulder joint
• easily dislocated due to loose attachment

67
Clavicle and Scapula

• Clavicle
• S-shaped bone located at the base of the neck
• Brace the scapulae
• Scapula
• Flat, triangular bones on either side of the
  upper back
• Articulates w/the head of the humerus
• Consists of a spine, acromion process, coracoid
  process, glenoid cavity, infraspinous fossa,
  supraspinous process, subscapular fossa

68
Scapular Features
69
Upper Limb

• Form the framework for the arm, forearm, and hand
• 30 bones per limb
• Brachium (arm) humerus
• Antebrachium (forearm) radius and ulna (radius
  on thumb side)
• Carpus (wrist) 8 small bones
• Manus (hand) 19 bones
• 5 metacarpals in palm
• 14 phalanges in fingers

70
Humerus

• Upper arm bone
• Extends from scapula to elbow
• Articulates w/the scapula at its head and the
  radius and ulna at the elbow
• Hemispherical head
• Anatomical neck
• Greater and lesser tubercles and deltoid
  tuberosity
• Intertubercular groove holds biceps tendon
• Rounded capitulum articulates with radius
• Trochlea articulates with ulna
• Olecranon fossa holds olecranon process of ulna
• Forearm muscles attach to medial and lateral
  epicondyles

71
Radius

• Located on the thumb side of the forearm
• Extends from elbow to wrist
• Flattened head articulates w/the humerus

72
Ulna

• Longer of the two lower arm bones
• Trochlear notch articulates w/the humerus
• radial notch holds ulna

73
Wrist

• Wrist consists of 8 carpal bones
• 2 rows (4 bones each)
• proximal row scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum and
  pisiform
• distal row trapezium, trapezoid, capitate and
  hamate

74
Hand

• Phalanges are bones of the fingers (14)
• thumb or pollex has proximal and distal phalanx
• fingers have proximal, middle and distal phalanx
• Metacarpals are bones of the palm (5)
• base, shaft and head

75
Sesamoid Bone
76
Pelvic Girdle

• Supports the trunk on the lower limbs and
  protects the lower abdominal and pelvic organs
• Girdle 2 hip bones (os coxae)
• Pelvis hip bones and sacrum
• Each os coxae is joined tothe vertebral column
  at thesacroiliac joint
• Anteriorly, pubic bones are joined by pad of
  fibrocartilage to form pubic symphysis

77
Coxal Bones

• Consist of three bones
• Iilium largest and most superior portion
• Joins the sacrum at the sacroiliac jt
• Iliac crest and iliac fossa
• Greater sciatic notch contains sciatic nerve
• Ischium forms the L-shaped portion that
  supports weight when sitting
• ischial tuberosity bears body weight
• ischial spine
• lesser sciatic notch between ischial spine and
  tuberosity
• ischial ramus joins inferior pubic ramus
• Pubis anterior portion articulates at the pubic
  symphysis
• Structure is different btwn males and females
• All three are fused
• Acetabulum is hip joint socket

78
Comparison of Male and Female

• Female lighter, shallower pubic arch( gt100
  degrees), and pubic inlet round or oval
• Male heavier, upper pelvis nearly vertical,
  coccyx more vertical, and pelvic inlet
  heart-shaped

79
Lower Limb

• Provide the framework for the thigh, lower leg,
  and foot
• Form the framework for the leg, lower leg, and
  foot
• 30 bones per limb
• Femoral (thigh) femr
• Crural (lowerleg) tibia and fibula (lateral
  side)
• Tarsus (ankle) 6 bones
• Pedal (foot) 19 bones
• 5 metatarsals in foot
• 14 phalanges in toes

80
Femur

• Thighbone
• Extends from hip to the knee
• Longest, largest, strongest bone in the body
• Head articulates w/the acetabulum and medial and
  lateral condyles articulate w/the tibia
• Nearly spherical head and constricted neck
• ligament to fovea capitis
• Greater and lesser trochanters for muscle
  attachment
• Posterior ridge called linea aspera
• Medial and lateral condyles and epicondyles found
  distally

81
Patella

• Knee cap
• Sesmoid bone located in the patella tendon that
  passes over the knee

82
Tibia

• Shin bone
• Supports the weight of the body
• Articulates w/the femur and tarsal bones
• Broad superior head with 2 flat articular
  surfaces
• medial and lateral condyles
• roughened anterior surface palpated below
  patella
• tibial tuberosity
• distal expansion medial malleolus

83
Fibula

• Slender bone lateral to the tibia
• Stabilizes ankle
• Does not bear any body weight
• Head proximal end
• Joined to tibia by interosseous membrane
• Lateral malleolus distal expansion

84
Ankle and Foot

• Ankle consists of seven tarsal bones that form a
  tarsus
• Talus is most superior tarsal bone
• forms ankle joint with tibia and fibula
• sits upon calcaneus and articulates with
  navicular
• Calcaneous (heel bone) supports the body weight
• Instep of the foot consists of five metatarsal
  bones that form the arch
• cuboid, medial, intermediate and lateral
  cuneiforms
• Tarsal bones are shaped and arranged differently
  from carpal bones due to load-bearing role of the
  ankle

85
The Foot

• Remaining bones of foot are similar in name and
  arrangement to the hand
• Metatarsals (5)
• Metatarsal I is proximal to the great toe
  (hallux)
• base, shaft and head
• Phalanges
• 2 in great toe
• Proximal and distal
• 3 in all other toes
• proximal, middle and distal

86
Foot Arches

• Sole of foot not flat on ground
• 3 springy arches absorb stress
• medial longitudinal arch from heel to hallux
• lateral longitudinal arch from heel to little toe
• transverse arch across middle of foot
• Arches held together by short, strong ligaments

87
Left vs. Right

• Make sure you can tell the difference between a
  bone from the right side of the body vs the left
  side.

88
Review

• 1. Name the tissues and organs that compose the
  skeletal system.
• 2. State the functions of the skeletal system.
• 3. Describe four types of bones classified by
  shape.
• 4. List and describe the cells, fibers, and
  ground substances of bone tissue.
• 5. Compare the histology of the two types of bone
  tissue.
• 6. Distinguish between the two types of bone
  marrow.
• 7.Define and describe the axial and appendicular
  skeletons.
• 8. State the approximate number of bones in the
  adult body.
• 9. Define terms that denote surface features of
  bone.
• 10. Identify and name the bones of the skull and
  their anatomical features.
• 11. Describe the development of the skull from
  infancy including fontanels.
• 12. Identify and describe the general features of
  the vertebral column.
• 13. Describe the special features of vertebrae in
  different regions of the vertebral column and
  discuss the functional significance of the
  differences.
• 14. Describe the anatomy of the sternum and ribs.
• 15. Identify and describe the features of the
  bones in the pectoral girdle, and upper limb.
• 16. Identify and describe the features of the
  bones in the pelvic girdle, and the lower limb.
• Assignment