Anatomy

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Anatomy Physiology
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What is Anatomy Physiology?

• Anatomy
• Is the study of structure

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What is Anatomy Physiology?

• Anatomy

• Subdivisions of anatomy
• Gross anatomy
• Microanatomy
• Cellular
• Histology
• Systemic anatomy
• Regional anatomy

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What is Anatomy Physiology?

• Physiology
• Is the study of function
• Structure determines function
• Function usually determines location

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Anatomical Position
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Anatomical Terminology

• Directional Terms

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Anatomical Terminology

• Directional Terms

Peripheral toward the outer wall or surface
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Anatomical Terminology

• Directional Terms

Inversion turning inward
Eversion turning outward
Abduction moving away from the midline
Adduction moving toward the midline
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Anatomical Terminology

• Directional Terms

Supination turning a body part upward
Pronation turning a body part downward
Caudal toward the tailbone
Cranial toward the head
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Anatomical Terminology

• Directional Terms

Afferent carrying toward the center
Efferent carrying away from the center
Parietal outer wall of body cavity
Visceral inner cover of structure or belly side
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Anatomical Terminology

• Directional Terms

Superficial toward the surface
Deep Away from the surface
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Anatomical Planes

• Sagittal Plane

divides the body into a right and a left half

• mid sagittal
• parasagittal

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Anatomical Planes

• Frontal or Coronal

divides the body into a front and a back
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Anatomical Planes

• Transverse or horizontal

divides the body into upper and lower portions
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Anatomical Terminology

• Planes

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CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

• Classify each plane illustrated below

horizontal
frontal
mid-sagittal
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Hierarchy of Organization

• Cells

• Tissues

• Organs

• Organ Systems

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Organ System Overview

1. Integumentary System
2. Skeletal System
3. Muscular System
4. Nervous System
5. Endocrine System
6. Cardiovascular System
7. Lymphatic System
8. Respiratory System
9. Digestive System
10. Urinary System
11. Reproductive System

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Life Processes

• metabolism
• responsiveness
• movement
• growth
• Differentiation
• Reproduction

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Homeostasis

• Maintenance of a stable internal environment a
  dynamic state of equilibrium
• Homeostasis must be maintained for normal body
  functioning and to sustain life
• Homeostatic imbalance a disturbance in
  homeostasis resulting in disease

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Maintaining Homeostasis

• The body communicates through neural and hormonal
  control systems
• Receptor
• Responds to changes in the environment (stimuli)
• Sends information to control center

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Maintaining Homeostasis

• Control center
• Determines set point
• Analyzes information
• Determines appropriate response
• Effector
• Provides a means for response to the stimulus

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Organ Systems Integumentary System

Function Protection, synthesizes vitamin D,
forms external body covering

Organs/Components Epidermis and
Dermis Finger/toe nails Hair Sweat glands
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Organ Systems Skeletal System

Function provide support for the body, to
protect delicate internal organs and to provide
attachment sites for the organs, site for RBC
formation, stores minerals.


Organs/Components Bones, cartilage, joints
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Organ Systems Muscular System


Function provide support, heat, and movement.
Maintains posture.


Organs/Components skeletal muscle, cardiac
muscle, smooth muscle, tendons

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Organ Systems Circulatory System


Function transport nutrients, gases (such as
oxygen and CO2), hormones and wastes through the
body.

Organs Heart, blood vessels and blood

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Organ Systems Lymphatic System


Function returns fluids to blood vessels,
disposes of debris, involved in immunity

Organs lymph nodes, lymph vessels,

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Organ Systems Nervous System


Function activates muscles glands, responds to
internal external stimuli, directs behavior and
movement along with the endocrine system,
controls physiological processes,

Organs Brain, spinal cord and peripheral nerves.

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Respiratory System



Function provide gas exchange between the blood
and the environment for the organs.

Organs Nose, trachea and lungs. bronchi

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Digestive System

Function breakdown and absorb nutrients that
are necessary for growth and maintenance

Organs Mouth, esophagus, stomach, small and
large intestines

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Excretory/Urinary System
Function filter out cellular wastes ie.
nitrogen ammonia, toxins and excess water from
the circulatory system, maintains acid-base
balance, regulation of materials ie. electrolytes
Organs Kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra
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Endocrine System


Function relay chemical messages through the
body and in conjunction with the nervous system,
these chemical messages help control
physiological processes ie. Growth metabolism,
reproduction

Organs hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid,
ovaries/testies, and adrenal glands


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Reproductive System


Function manufacture cells that allow
reproduction of offspring
Organs ovaries, oviducts, uterus, vagina and
mammary glands testes, seminal vesicles and penis


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Positions

• Many medical procedures and therapies require
  that a patient assume a certain position.
• Position terms include
• Sitting (most common position) used for
  auscultation of the heart and lungs for taking
  blood pressure, and for portions of a
  neurological examination.
• Fowlers Modified Fowlers is used for exam of
  the heart and lungs, to promote respiration in
  patients who have shortness of breath, and for
  exam of the feet and lower legs.

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Positions Continued

• Supine (on your back) The supine position is
  used for exams of the anterior body surfaces,
  breast exams, x-rays, and some surgical
  procedures
• Prone (on your stomach) This position is used
  for examination of the posterior of the body
  surfaces and for some operations.
• Trendelenburgs May be used to prevent and
  treat shock, for radiologic exams and procedures,
  and for some types of surgery.
• Modified Trendelenburgs Used to prevent and
  treat shock in trauma patients, for radiologic
  exams, or during some operations.

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Positions Continued

• Knee to Chest Used for rectal exams, artificial
  insemination, and some surgical procedures. In
  some cases, the exam table may be contoured to
  aid positioning and to support the patient.
• Sims AKA the Left Lateral Position, it may be
  used for administering rectal suppositories and
  enemas and for certain exams and surgical
  procedures
• Dorsal Recumbent used for exam of the abdomen,
  occasionally for vaginal or rectal exams, and for
  some surgical procedures.
• Lithotomy used for pelvic exams in females,
  rectal exams, some operations, and sometimes in
  childbirth.

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Fowlers Modified Fowlers
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Knee to Chest Sims
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Anatomical Terminology

• Directional Terms

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Anatomical Terminology

• Directional Terms

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Anatomical Terminology

• Regional Terms

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Anatomical Terminology

• Regional Terms

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Anatomical Terminology

• Regional Terms

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Anatomical Terminology

• Regional Terms

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Anatomical Terminology

• Regional Terms

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ABDOMINOPELVIC QUADRANTS
Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ)
Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ)
Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ)
Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ)
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Anatomical Terminology

• Abdominopelvic Regions

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Abdominopelvic Quadrants
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BodyCavities
Cranial Cavity
Dorsal
Thoracic
Pericardial
Spinal
Ventral
Abdominal
Pelvic
Abdomino-pelvic
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Abdominopelvic Major Organs
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HOMEOSTASIS

• Is maintaining the internal environment within
  physiological limits
• Internal environment refers to the extracellular
  fluids (EFC)
• Includes lymph, plasma and interstitial fluid
• The maintenance of homeostasis results in health

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HOMEOSTASIS

• And Stress
• Homeostatic mechanisms attempt to counteract the
  effects of the stress and bring the condition
  back to normal

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HOMEOSTASIS

• Homeostasis is regulated by the nervous system
  and endocrine systems

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HOMEOSTASIS

• And Feedback Systems (Loops)
• a cycle of events in which information about the
  status of a condition is continually monitored
  and fed back (reported) to a central control
  region.
• Any stress that changes a controlled condition is
  called a stimulus.

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HOMEOSTASIS

• And Feedback Systems (Loops)
• three basic components
• The control center
• The receptor
• The effector

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HOMEOSTASIS

• And Feedback Systems (Loops)
• Negative Feedback Systems
• a.  Shuts off, reduces or reverses the original
  stimuls
• b.  Tend to maintain conditions that
  require frequent fine tuning
• Positive Feedback Systems
• a.  enhances the original stimulus
• b. this only occurs in blood clotting birth
  of a baby.

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And Disease
HOMEOSTASIS

• Disease
• a.  any change from a state of health,
  characterized by symptoms signs
• b. Local vs. systemic disease

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Homeostasis And Disease

• Symptoms vs. Symptoms
• a. Symptoms
• are subjective changes in body functions
  that are not apparent to an observer

b. Signs are objective
changes that a clinician can observe and
measure
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What is Anatomy Physiology?

• Anatomy
• Is the study of structure
• Subdivisions of anatomy
• surface anatomy
• gross anatomy
• systemic anatomy
• regional anatomy
• radiographic anatomy
• developmental anatomy
• embryology
• cytology
• pathological anatomy

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THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE

• CH 2

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I. Atoms and molecules

• A. Atoms are the smallest stable units of matter.
  
• Nucleus
• Protons
• Neutrons
• 2. Electron cloud
• Electrons
• 3. Atoms are electrically neutral
• protons electrons

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I. Atoms and molecules

• B. Elements
• Element A substance that is made of only one
  kind of atom
• Contain atoms with the same number of protons
• Called atomic number
• Differ in number of electrons and
  neutrons
• 2. 92 naturally occurring
• 3. Principle elements of human body
• O, C, H, N, Ca, P

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II. Chemical bonding

• A. Ionic bonds
• Form when one atom gives up an e- and another
  atom gains that e-
• cations
• anions

• 2. Properties of Ionic Compounds
• readily dissolve in water
• dissociate in water into their cations and
  anions.

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II. Chemical bonding

• B. Covalent bonds
• Form when two atoms share electrons, forming a
  molecule

• Form a molecule
• Diatomic mc H2, 02, N2
• 2. Kinds of covalent bonds
• Nonpolar Covalent bonds
• Polar Covalent bonds

3. Properties of Covalent Cmpds strong bonds
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II. Chemical bonding

• C. Hydrogen bonds
• Form between two adjacent polar mc containing H
  and O, N, or F
• Ex between water mc
• 2. Properties of Covalent Cmpds
• Very weak
• Important in determining the shape of large
  biological mc such as protein and DNA
• Important in determining characteristics of water

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II. Chemical bonding

• D. States of Matter
• Are determined by the amount of bonding that
  occurs between mc
• Solid Liquid Gas
• 2. Properties of Covalent Cmpds
• Water is the only substance that can occur in all
  three states within temperature ranges consistent
  with life

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Solid
Liquid
Gas
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III. Chemical reactions

• A. Fundamental Concepts
• Metabolism
• Reactants
• 2. Products
• 3. Chemical reaction
• Energy
• Potential Energy
• Kinetic Energy
• Law of Conservation of Matter and Energy

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III. Chemical reactions

• B. Types of reactions
• Decomposition
• AB ? A B
• Catabolic processes
• Exergonic
• Hydrolysis

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III. Chemical reactions

• B. Types of reactions
• 2. Synthesis
• A B ? AB
• Anabolic processes
• Endergonic
• Dehydration Synthesis

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III. Chemical reactions

• B. Types of reactions
• Exchange
• AB CD ? AD CB
• Decomposition and synthesis may be paired.

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III. Chemical reactions

• C. Reversible reactions
• 1. Reactants become products while products
  become reactants
• A B ? AB
• Continues until equilibrium is reached
• 2. Very important to biological systems
• ATP ? ADP P

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III. Chemical reactions

• D. Enzymes and Chemical reactions
• 1. Enzymes are important reaction
  catalysts in metabolic systems
• Speed up the reaction
• Allow the reaction to occur at lower than normal
  temperatures
• Lower the activation energy
• 2. Are not altered or used up by the reaction

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IV. Inorganic compounds

• Generally Concepts
• Dont contain both C H
• 2. Important organic cmpds in the human body
• CO2
• O2
• H2O
• inorganic acids, bases, and salts

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IV. Inorganic compounds

• B. Water
• Excellent solvent because it is polar.
• Solute solvent solution

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IV. Inorganic compounds

• B. Water
• Forms a reaction medium, particularly in
  hydrolysis reactions which break down larger
  molecules.

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IV. Inorganic compounds

• B. Water
• 3. High heat capacity and thus water stays in a
  liquid form over a broad range of temps.
• 4. Water is an important reactant in some types
  of chemical reactions.

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IV. Inorganic compounds

• B. Water
• Water carries heat with it when it evaporates -
  thus water helps stabilize body temperature.
• Effective lubricant in joints and within body
  cavities and thus serves a protective function.

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IV. Inorganic compounds

• C. Aqueous solutions and electrolytes
• Electrolytes
• Water soluble inorganic cmpds
• Are capable of conducting an electric current
• 2. Electrolytes and the electrical activity they
  can generate are the basis for
• nerve impulses
• muscle action

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IV. Inorganic compounds

• C. Aqueous solutions and electrolytes
• 3. Homeostasis of electrolytes in body fluids
• kidneys (rid body of excess ions)
• digestive (absorb ions from diet)
• skeletal (store and release ions)
• 4. Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Mc

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IV. Inorganic compounds

• D. Colloids and suspensions
• Colloids
• are solutions in which large and complex organic
  mc are dispersed
• mc stay in solution indefinitely
• Example proteins
• Suspensions
• Contain large particles that will settle out if
  left undisturbed
• Example blood

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IV. Inorganic compounds

• E. Acids/Bases / Salts and pH

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IV. Inorganic compounds

• E. Acids/Bases / Salts and pH
• Acids

• Are substances which form H ions when in
  solution
• (the stronger the acid the more H ions it
  contains)

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IV. Inorganic compounds

• E. Acids/Bases / Salts and pH
• Acids

- can break bonds, denature proteins, and
disrupt cell and tissue functions
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IV. Inorganic compounds

• E. Acids/Bases / Salts and pH
• Acids
• pH ? 7
• Examples
• Carbonic acid
• HCl

The lower the pH the stronger the acid
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IV. Inorganic compounds

• E. Acids/Bases / Salts and pH
• 2. Bases
• Are substances which form OH- ions when in
  solution
• (the stronger the base the more OH- ions it
  contains)
• pH ? 7
• (the stronger the base the higher the pH)

Normal pH of blood is 7.35
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IV. Inorganic compounds

• E. Acids/Bases / Salts and pH
• 2. Bases
• Strong bases are very damaging to cell processes
• Example NH4OH

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IV. Inorganic compounds

• E. Acids/Bases / Salts and pH
• 3. Salts
• Contain a cation other than H and an anion other
  than OH
• dissociate in water
• Are strong electrolytes
• pH 7

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IV. Inorganic compounds

• E. Acids/Bases / Salts and pH
• 3. Salts
• Importance in the body
• provide ions for transport of substances into and
  out of cells
• function in muscle contraction
• function in nerve impulse conduction

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IV. Inorganic compounds

• E. Acids/Bases / Salts and pH
• Changes in the acid-base balance are resisted by
• extracellular and intracellular chemical buffers
• respiratory regulation
• renal regulation

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IV. Inorganic compounds

• E. Acids/Bases / Salts and pH
• 5. Buffers
• compounds help stabilize the pH of a solution by
  turning a strong acid or base into a weaker one
• usually consist of a weak acid and its related
  salt
• Example
• bicarbonate ion buffers the blood

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V. Organic compounds

• A. General
• Long-chain molecules
• Always contain C and H
• Usually contain O
• Linked by covalent bonds
• Many are soluble in water
• Classes of Organic Cmpds
• Carbohydrates
• Lipids
• Proteins
• Nucleic acids

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V. Organic compounds

• Carbohydrates
• Contain C H O in a near
  121 ratio
• Most important function

Primary energy source for the cell
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V. Organic compounds

• Carbohydrates
• Kinds
• Monosaccharides
• Simple sugars
• 3-7 carbons in length
• Example Glucose (C6H12O6)

• Polysaccharides
• Most complex sugars
• Example Starch Glycogen

• Disaccharides
• Double sugars
• Example Lactose, sucrose

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V. Organic compounds

• Lipids
• Contain C H O in very large numbers
• Include
• Fats, oils and waxes
• Common examples

• triglycerides
• steroids
• phospholipids

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V. Organic compounds

• Lipids
• 5. Insoluble in water
• 4. Importance
• long term energy storage
• structural component of cell membranes
  (phospholipids)

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B. Lipids

• 5. Kinds
• Fatty Acids
• saturated
• C have only single bonds

• unsaturated
• C have 1 or more double bonds.
• polyunsaturated
• double bonds

occur at multiple sites
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V. Organic compounds

• Lipids
• 5. Kinds
• Eicosanoids
• Have short C chains
• Prostaglandins local hormones
• Leukotrienes coordinate response to injury or
  disease

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B. Lipids

• 5. Kinds
• Glycerides
• composed of fatty acids and glycerol
• Function
• Energy source
• Insulation
• Protection

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B. Lipids

• 5. Kinds
• Steroids
• lg lipid mc
• examples cholesterol, testoterone, estrogen

• Function
• Stabilize cell membrane
• Sex hormones
• Regulate metabolism and mineral balance
• Formation of bile

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B. Lipids

• 5. Kinds
• Phospholipd
• structural lipids that help form and maintain
  cell membranes

polar head - hydrophilic nonpolar tail-
hydrophobic
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V. Organic compounds

• Proteins
• Examples
• Keratin, hemoglobin
• 1. Basics
• the most abundant organic components in the body
• contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.
• If made of more than 30 amino acids it is called
  a polypeptide

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C. Proteins
Made from amino acids (20 exist) held together by
peptide bonds
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V. Organic compounds

• C. Proteins

2. Functions Support, movement, transport,
buffers, regulate reactions, coordination,
control, defense 3. Structure Primary,
Secondary, Tertiary, Quatranary
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Peptide bonds
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Shape determines function
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V. Organic compounds

• C. Proteins

• 4. Shape Determines function
• Small changes in pH, temperature, ionic
  composition can denature a protein (affects
  protein structure) cause it not to function
  properly
• 5. Enzymes
• Biological catalysts
• Speed up a reaction without being used up in
  the reaction

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V. Organic compounds

• C. Proteins

• 5. Enzymes
• Biological catalysts
• Speed up a reaction without being used up in
  the reaction

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V. Organic compounds

• C. Proteins

• 5. Enzymes
• lower the needed activation energy

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V. Organic compounds

• C. Proteins

• 5. Enzymes
• Some poisons bond permanently to an enzyme

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V. Organic compounds

• C. Proteins

• 6. Glycoproteins
• Protein carbohydrate
• Important in cell recognition

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V. Organic compounds

• C. Proteins

• 6. Glycoproteins
• Function
• As enzymes
• As antibodies
• As hormones
• As cell membrane components

• To secrete mucins which absorb water to form
  mucus

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V. Organic compounds

• D. Nucleic Acids

• lg organic mc that have
• C, H, O, N and P
• Function
• store and process information
• Structure
• made of nucleotides
• Phosphate, sugar, base
• (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, uracil)
• linked by dehydration synthesis

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V. Organic compounds

• D. Nucleic Acids

• Structure
• made of nucleotides

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V. Organic compounds

• D. Nucleic Acids

• Kinds
• DNA
• Important in inheritance
• Codes for and directs the synthesis of proteins
• Regulates cell metabolism
• Found in nucleus
• Double stranded
• Sugar is Deoxyribose
• Bases are A G C T
• Able to self replicate

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DNA STRUCTURE
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V. Organic compounds

• D. Nucleic Acids

• Kinds
• RNA
• comes in several forms (mRNA, tRNA, rRNA) that
  cooperate to manufacture proteins
• Single stranded
• Found in nucleus and cytoplasm
• Bases are U A G C
• Sugar is ribose

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E. High Energy Compounds
V. Organic compounds

1. Energy currency cells is ATP

• ATP made of 3 phosphate groups attached to an
  adenosine (composed of adenine and ribose)

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• E. High Energy Compounds

2. Energy is stored when P is added to ADP
(energonic)
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• E. High Energy Compounds

2. Energy is released when P is added to
ADP (exergonic)
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E. High Energy Compounds

• 3. Another form, called cyclic-AMP is used as
  an intracellular signal.