The Unification of Italy

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The Unification of Italy

• The progressive dissolution of the Concert of
  Europe and the lessening faith in the necesity of
  preserving the Vienna settlement, (partly because
  states had in most cases been successful in
  suppressing revolution and were therfore not as
  fearful as before of the prospect of new
  revolutionary uprisings with the potential to
  overthrow the status quo), was to encourage
  further dramatic change in Europe in the years
  following the Crimean War, most importantly to
  the substantial re-drawing of the European
  political map following the national unification
  of Italy and Germany.
• The Italian uprisings of 1848 1849, led largely
  by romantic republicans, had failed to achieve
  the objective of Italian unification. Yet, only a
  decade later, to an important extent as a
  consequence of the leadership and diplomatic
  manouveurs of Count Cavour of Piedmont, a new,
  united kingdom of Italy had been successfully
  established.

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The Italian Peninsula post 1848
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Count Camilo di Cavour

• Cavour appointed Prime Minister of Piedmont in
  1852 by new king Victor Emmanuel II. Cavour was
  relatively liberal, but also v. loyal to the
  monarch.
• Cavour supported the national unification of
  Italy so long as it was unified under Piedmontese
  leadership. To this end he supported
  establishment of the pro-Piedmontese National
  Society in many different Italian states.
• Cavour realized Piedmont could only defeat
  Austria with the support of a Great Power -
  specifically he saw France, now under the
  leadership of the pro-Italian Napoleon III as a
  potential ally
• Cavours first important diplomatic move was to
  take Piedmont into the Crimean War, therby
  increasing Piedmonts prestige amongst the
  Italian people and gaining the good-will/respect
  of Britain and France

Keep in mind that Napoleon III was also someone
seeking fame and glory, hoping to return France
to the great and glorious days of his uncle, and
he too saw Piedmont as a potential ally vis-a-vis
Austria
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The Pact of Plombieres

• In July 1858 Napoleon III Count Cavour met at
  Plombieres-les-bains where they formulated a
  secret deal, signed later in December 1858
  known as the Pact of Plombieres
• The Pact was basically an agreement whereby
  France promised to help Piedmont against Austria,
  and in return for its help would receive the
  provinces of Nice Savoy from Piedmont.
• In line with the agreement, Cavour mobilized his
  army on the border of Austrian controlled Lombardy

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The Rise of Piedmont

• Cavours decision to mobilize on the border of
  Lombardy was consciously designed to antagonize
  Austria, in the hope of finding a pretext for
  going to war. Unaware that Piedmont was in secret
  agreement with France, Austria gave Piedmont an
  ultimatum, which Piedmont then rejected, leading
  to Austria declaring war and appearing the
  aggressor.
• With the backing of France, Piedmont heavily
  defeated Austrian forces in the battles of
  Magenta Solferino in June 1859, took over
  Lombardy and was on the verge of occupying
  Venetia too.
• Meanwhile, encouraged by the defeat of Austria,
  revolutionary uprisings calling for Italian
  national unification under Piedmontese leadership
  were initiated throughout much of the Italian
  peninsula. Everything appeared to be going right
  for Cavour...

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The Treaty of Villafranca

• Then, to Cavours surprise and great
  disapointment, Napoleon III had a change of
  heart, and turned around to sign a Peace Treaty
  with Austria on July 11th 1859, the Treaty of
  Villafranca.
• According to the Treaty of Villafranca, France
  would withdraw its support from Piedmont and
  Piedmont would get only Lombardy, not Venetia.
• Why had Napoleon III abandoned Cavour? Perhaps a
  combination of the following
• - He lacked resolve (unlike his uncle)
• - He feared the entry of Prussia into the war
  on the side of Austria
• - He was becomming concerned that Piedmont
  might become too powerful a southern neighbour
  for France

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Garibaldi

• For a while Cavour was helpless, but the forces
  of Italian nationalism had been set in motion and
  by the end of the year several central Italian
  states had voted in plebiscites to unite with
  Piedmont.
• Then, in May 1860, the veteran republican
  nationalist Giuseppe Garibaldi, (who had been a
  leader of the nationalist uprisings of 1848),
  landed in Sicily taking over the island held by
  the king of Naples and later proceeding to take
  Naples itself.
• Fearing that Italy might now unite as a republic,
  Cavour pre-empted Garibaldis movement further
  north. He sent his troops south, in the process
  taking over control of the remaining central
  Italian states controlled by the pope (i.e. the
  papal states), but being careful to avoid the
  region around Rome.
• Cavours caution regarding Rome was a consequence
  of 2 factors
• - He didnt want to offend Catholics
• - Rome was protected by French troops

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The Kingdom of Italy

• There was now the potentail for war between
  Cavour Garibaldis respective forces, the
  former defending a united Italian kingdom under
  the rule of King Victor Emmanuel II, the latter
  wishing to see a united Italy become a republic.
  Garibaldi, however, apparently so as not to
  jeopardize the national unification of Italy by
  fighting against the forces of Piedmont, conceded
  that a united Italy could be a kingdom and in
  late 1860 the people of Naples and Sicily voted
  in a plebiscite to unite with Piedmont.
• On 17th March 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was
  crowned the king of the newly united Italy. Less
  than 3 months later Cavour had died. But for 2
  major exceptions (Venetia Rome), Cavour had
  lived to see his dream come true.

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The Formation of a United Italy (1)
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The Formation of a United Italy (2)
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German Unification

• The unification of Germany could be regarded as
  the most significant European development till
  World War I, one that greatly affected the
  political, economical military balance of
  power. It was achieved largely through military
  power diplomatic manouevres, rather than
  through the idealist liberalism of participants
  in the earlier Frankfurt Assembly. The leading
  role was played by Otto von Bismarck, the great
  Prussian statesman who had been appointed Prime
  Minister in Sept. 1862 by the new King of Prussia
  William I.

OTTO VON BISMARCK
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Otto von Bismarck (1)

• Bismarck was more of a Prussian nationalist
  rather than a German nationalist, who aimed to
  strengthen Prussia make sure the people
  remained loyal to their king and conservative
  institutions rather than follow the liberals who
  had begun to dominate the Prussian parliament.
• For Bismarck successful politics was not based on
  ideals or principles or debates or democratically
  made decisions, but on the effective excercise of
  power.

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Otto von Bismarck (2)

• The great questions of the day will not be
  decided by speeches majority decisions that
  was the mistake of 1848-1849 but by iron
  blood.

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German Territorial Unification
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3 Wars in the Process ofGerman Unification
Through the process of 3 major wars in less than
a decade, Bismarck ended up engineering the
unification of Germany

• PrussiaAustria vs. Denmark ? 1864
• Austro-Prussian War ? 1866
• Franco-Prussian War ? 1870-71

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War with Denmark - 1864

• War with Denmark began as a result of the
  Schleswig-Holstein Problem. These two duchies,
  though not officially part of the Danish state
  had come under the domination of Denmark even
  though they had substantial German populations (a
  majority in Holstein) and though Holstein was a
  member of the Bund.
• When in 1863 Denmark tried to annex these
  territories Germans everywhere were outraged and
  the call rose for a pan-German war against
  Denmark. Bismarck resisted this call because he
  didnt want the smaller German states to gain
  prestige/credit, and instead arranged for thw war
  with Denmark to be fought by Prussia in alliance
  with Austria.
• Denmark was quickly defeated in the Convention
  of Gastein it was agreed that Austria would
  administer Holstein Prussia would administer
  Schleswig.

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Austro-Prussian War of 1866

• Bismark now looked for an opportunity to attack
  Austria, he needed to develop the right
  circumstances. First he purposefully increased
  tensions between the two states over the
  administration of Shleswig-Holstein, increasing
  these tensions further when he felt that
  international circumstances had become suitable.
• Bismarck had already gained friendship of Russia
  by supporting the Russian suppression of a new
  uprising in Poland in 1863. He now convinced
  France to remain neutral in a war with Austria
  and made a deal with Italy in April 1866,
  promising it Venetia if it gave its backing also.
• When in June 1866 Austria appealed to the Bund
  over Prussian activities in Schleswig-Holstein,
  Bismarck declared that according to Treaty of
  Gastein the issue was between the two great
  powers, not a matter for the Bund, and indeed a
  new German confederation should be formed, one
  that this time excluded Austria. Bismrack (as he
  had planned), had tested Austrian patience too
  much, and the Austrians now declared war against
  Prussia.
• Known as the Seven Weeks War, Austria was quite
  rapidly defeated by the superior Prussian
  military forces (and technology including, for
  example, the needle gun)

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The Treaty of Prague the Results of the
Austro-Prussian War

• The outcome of the Austro-Prussian War was
  determined in the Treaty of Prague, signed
  between Prussia and Austria on August 23rd 1866.
  Accordingly
• 1) Austria was to give Venetia to Italy
• 2) Prussia annexed several German states which
  had backed Austria in the war (incl. Hannover,
  Hesse, Nassau Frankfurt)
• 3) A North German Confederation, dominated by
  Prussia and headed by the Prussian king was
  formed
• 4) Austria promised not to get involved in
  German affairs
• 5) Prussias ( Bismarcks) prestige was further
  enhanced. Greater numbers of Germans now looked
  to Prussia for leadership and popular support in
  Prussia shifted from the liberals towards the
  conservative administration of Bismarck

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Crisis of Succession to the Spanish Throne

• Bismarcks final initiative for the unification
  of Germany cam with his finding of a pretext to
  go to war against France (which was becomming
  increasingly concerned by the growing power of
  Prussia). Bismarcks excuse was related to the
  succession to the Spanish throne.
• Spanish queen Isabella had been overthrown by a
  military coup in 1868, but for almost 2 years the
  Spaniards could not agree on a suitable
  replacement as monarch. The Spanish eventually
  chose Prince Leopold who accepted the offer on
  June 19th 1870.
• What was special about Leopold was that he was a
  member of the Hohenzollern family, the royal
  family ruling Prussia. For France his monarchy in
  Spain was completely unacceptable. The French did
  not want another neighbouring state ruled by the
  Hohenzollern family.

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The Ems Telegram (1)

• French ambassador Count Vincent Benedetti was
  sent to see Prussian king William I at a place
  called Ems to resolve the issue. They had
  civilized gentlemany discussions, but the issue
  was not yet resolved.
• On the 12th July Leopolds father withdrew his
  sons candidacy for the Spanish throne on behalf
  of his son. But, not yet satisfied, Benedetti was
  sent to meet the king again to ask for secure
  guarantees that there would never again be
  another Hohenzollern candidate. Even though there
  was no intention to support another Hohenzollern
  candidacy, this demand, William I said was not
  possible to accept.
• A telegram, later infamously called the Ems
  Telegram was then sent to Bismarck to explain
  what had passed.

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The Ems Telegram (2)

• While conversation between the ambassador and the
  king had been quite open and frank, it was still
  civil. Yet Bismarck, the opportunist that he was,
  saw a chance in this to create an excuse for war
  with France.
• Bismarck noticed that by slightly editing the
  text of the telegram that he had received, and
  then leaking it to the press, he could make a war
  almost unavoidable.
• By playing with the words of the text, Bismarck
  made it appear as if the telegram had spoken of a
  very hostile meeting where the king had been very
  offensive to the representative of the French
  government.
• When the telegram, as edited by Bismarck, was
  releasd to the public, Germans felt pride in the
  kings tough stance, while the French felt that
  their national honour had been attacked. Tensions
  and pressures built-up on the 19th of July 1870
  France declared war ... Just what Bismarck had
  wanted!!!

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Facsimile of the Abeken Text and Bismarck's
editing.
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The Abeken Text Ems, July 13, 1870. To THE
FEDERAL CHANCELLOR, COUNT BISMARCK, No. 61 EOD.
310 P.M. (STATION EMS RUSH!) His Majesty the
King writes to me "M. Benedetti intercepted me
on the Promenade in order to demand of me most
insistently that I should authorize him to
telegraph immediately to Paris that I shall
obligate myself for all future time never again
to give my approval to the candidacy of the
Hohenzollerns should it be renewed. I refused to
agree to this, the last time somewhat severely,
informing him that one dare not and cannot assume
such obligations à tout jamais. Naturally, I
informed him that I had received no news as yet,
and since he had been informed earlier than I by
way of Paris and Madrid he could easily
understand that my Government was once again out
of the matter." Since then His Majesty has
received a dispatch from the Prince Charles
Anthony. As His Majesty informed Count Benedetti
that he was expecting news from the Prince, His
Majesty himself, in view of the above-mentioned
demand and in consonance with the advice of Count
Eulenburg and myself, decided not to receive the
French envoy again but to inform him through an
adjutant that His Majesty had now received from
the Prince confirmation of the news which
Benedetti had already received from Paris, and
that he had nothing further to say to the
Ambassador. His Majesty leaves it to the judgment
of Your Excellency whether or not to communicate
at once the new demand by Benedetti and its
rejection to our ambassadors and to the press.
Signed Abeken 13.7.70
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The Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71

• With nationalist passions aroused by the dispute
  with France, the southern German states now
  joined forces with the Northern German
  Confederation led by Prussia.
• The French armies were destroyed relatively
  quickly, though Paris continued to resist till
  Jan. 1871.
• Napoleon III was captured by the Prussians
  following the Battle of Sedan in Sept. 1870 and
  eventually sent into exile in England.

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The German Emperor

• During the war, often under public pressure,
  leaders of the southern German states had called
  upon William I to become emperor of a united, but
  federal Germany, in which they would maintain
  some authority within their own territories. On
  18th Jan. 1871, William I was crowned emperor of
  a united Germany in the famous Hall of Mirrors
  in the Palace of Versailles, which had been home
  to generations of French monarchs, (and which
  therefore was an especially humiliating occassion
  for the French one which they did not forget!
  n.b. They sought revenge for this after WWI)

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Outcomes of theFranco-Prussian War

• Aside from the key outcome of the formation of a
  united German national state, and the exile of
  Napoleon III, the war had certain other
  significant consequences
• In the Treaty of Frankfurt the French were made
  to accept the payment of reparations and to give
  the long-to-be disputed territories of Alsace and
  Lorraine to Germany
• German forces of liberalism were outstaged by the
  conservative forces led by Bismarck
• A 3rd republic was declared in France (The first
  was in 1792, the 2nd in 1848)

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The Dual MonarchyAustria-Hungary
Habsburg Emperor of Austria
Habsburg Emperor of Austrian Empire
?
Habsburg King of Hungary
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Nationalities within the Habsburg Empire
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The Magyar German Compromise

• The Dual Monarchy was basically a compromise
  between the Magyars and Germans of the Empire.
  According to this compromise the Empire was
  divided into two autonomous halves, Austria in
  the west (dominated by the Germans) and Hungary
  in the east (dominated by the Magyars). A
  critical tie between the two halves that was to
  be maintained, however, was that they would have
  the same sovereign, the Habsburg ruler being
  simultaeously Emperor of Austria and King of
  Hungary. (Technically the new name for this
  arrangement was Austria-Hungary, though many
  sources continue to refer to the Austrian
  Empire even after this date).

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Reasons for the Habsburg Acceptance of the Dual
Monarchy

• Growing recognition that even though Magyar
  nationalist demands had been defeated in 1848,
  the defeat was only temporary, and they would
  again surface unless the Magyars were satisfied
  in some way.
• Belief that the Magyars (more so than e.g. the
  Slavs) were a noble and ancient nation.
• Inability to rely on further Russian support.
  (Russia had helped the Habsburgs in 1848, but
  Austria had failed to provide the expected
  support for Russia during the Crimean War).
• Successive military defeats of the Empire (first
  against Piedmont (France) and then especially
  against Prussia had increased the belief that a
  domestic reorganization of the Empire was needed
  in order for it to maintain its strength.

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The Abolition of Serfdom in Russia

• As in the case of the Austrian Empire, the
  abolition of serfdom in Russia was again based
  largely on pragmatic politics, rather than
  principles.
• Serfdom in Russia was officially ended in Feb
  1861. In evaluating the military failures of
  Russia during the Crimean War, it was decided
  that a major cause had been the low morale and
  motivation of the serfs fighting for the Russian
  armies, defending a state in which they had
  virtually no rights.
• Though officially freed, however, the
  circumstances of the serfs did not improve
  greatly in the short term. They were made to pay
  for the compensation given to nobles who had lost
  their serfs and they were not given the title to
  the land they worked till compensation was fully
  paid. Hence the serfs economic servitude
  continued by other means.

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Reforms Continued in Britain

• In the second-half of the C19th the process of
  political reform initiated with the First (Great)
  Reform Bill of 1832 was given further impetus.
• In 1867, the Second Reform Bill was passed by
  parliament. This now not only granted the right
  to vote to the middle classes, but also to the
  better-off working classes. Many in the working
  classes began by the 1850s to move out of
  absolute poverty and as their economic
  circumstances improved, they gained greater
  social respectability, and as their social status
  improved the pressures to give them the vote did
  so too. The Second Reform Bill increased the size
  of the electorate from about 1.5 million to 2.5
  million, many of the newly enfranchised now being
  from the working classes.
• Interestingly, the Second Reform Bill had been
  championed by conservative leader Disraeli.
  Realizing that it was only a matter of time
  before pressures forced the government to grant
  the right to vote to the voters, PM Disraeli took
  the lead on the issue in order to win the
  political sympathy of the workers.

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Reforms Continued in Britain (2)

• Further important reforms that followed included
  the Education Act (1870) Here for the first time
  the government accepted responsibility for
  establishing and running primary schools (before
  this the role had been played in only a limited
  way by religious organizations)
• The Ballot Act of 1872 allowed for voting by
  secret ballot the Public Health Act of 1872
  recognised the states duty to interfere, even on
  private property, if the conditions of work were
  unhealthy the Artisans Dwelling act of 1875 made
  the state directly involved in housing members of
  the working class