THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY 1815- 1871 AS UNIT 1

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THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY 1815- 1871AS UNIT 1
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OVERVIEW OF CONTENT

• ITALY 1815-48
• i. The Vienna Settlement - Why was Unification
  unlikely in 1815?
• ii. What were the forces of change 1815-48?
  Legacy of Napoleon and growth of Liberalism and
  Nationalism.
• iii. The Early Revolutions 1820-21 and 1830-31
  causes, events and consequences
• iv. Mazzini, Gioberti and Balbo.
• 2. Revolutions in Italy 1848-49
• i. General Long term and short term causes of the
  1848 Revolutions.
• ii. The Revolutions in Sicily and Naples
  Lombardy Venetia Piedmont Parma and Modena
  Rome and Tuscany.
• iii. Why did the Revolutions fail?
• The Position of Piedmont 1848-59
• i. The position of Piedmont, Cavour and Garibaldi
  up to the early 50s.
• ii. The Developments in Piedmont 1850-59
  Political, economic and Religious
• The Stages of Unification 1859-71
• Stage 1 Acquisition of Lombardy.
• Stage 2 Acquisition of Tuscany, Modena, Parma,
  and Romagna.
• Stage 3 Acquisition of Sicily, Naples and the
  Papal States.
• Stage 4 - Acquisition of Venetia and Rome.

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ITALY IN 1815.THE LEGACY OF NAPOLEON AND THE
GROWTH OF LIBERALISM AND NATIONALISM

• ii. What were the forces for Change between 1815
  and 1848?
• THE LEGACY OF NAPOLEON
• POLITICAL
• Territory re-organised from 11 to 3 states
• Legal uniformity law standardised
• Representative Government elected assemblies
• 2 chamber Government in each state.
• SOCIAL
• Land redistributed and a commercial middle-class
  developed
• Church influence was reduced
• Communications improved, street lamps, vaccines
• Meritocracy could get jobs based on own merits
  in politics or in military.
• ECONOMIC
• New roads
• Improved commerce
• Middle classes could buy monastery land

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ITALY IN 1815.THE VIENNA SETTLEMENT

• Why was Italian Unification unlikely in 1815?
• THE VIENNA SETTLEMENT
• This dealt with how Europe was to be divided
  following the Napoleonic Wars. It had a big
  impact on Italy Politically, Socially and
  Economically.
• POLITICAL IMPACT
• The French Code of Law was to be abolished.
• Territory was to be divided into 7 states under
  the Austrian or Legitimate Monarchs control.
• In the Papal States, control was given back to
  the Church.
• In Sicily the King cancelled the Constitution.
• ECONOMIC IMPACT
• In Piedmont the old customs barriers were
  re-introduced.
• The use of the new roads were discouraged.
• Nobles were given back their land.
• SOCIAL IMPACT
• Middle Class were dismissed from their jobs which
  were returned to the nobles.
• Education control went back to the Church.

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GROUPS PUSHING FOR CHANGE EXTREMISTS Wanted
Italy to become a Republic under an elected
President Elected Parliament Democracy one man,
one vote. RADICALS Retain monarchs with limited
powers Elected assembly One man, one
vote Freedom of press Individual
freedom MODERATES Retain monarchs with
considerable powers 2 Parliamentary chambers 1
elected Votes restricted to wealthy. LIBERALS Midd
le classes, non-violent, distrusted Absolute
Monarchs and Republics. Wanted Constitutional
Monarchy SECRET SOCIETIES Wide variety of
members, usually educated and middle class E.g.
Carbonari patriotic and idealist. All wanted
different things e.g. Anti-Catholic, armed
revolution, Constitutional Monarchy etc. Main
reason why they failed different aims.
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THE EARLY REVOLUTIONS OF 1820 21 1820
NAPLES Causes? King Ferdinand had increased
church power reduced freedom of speech cut back
spending on roads and education which led to
Poverty and a corrupt Government. This in turn
led to Discontent. Agricultural prices dropped
which affected Sicily greatly Events? Priests,
Soldiers and 30 Carbonari members advanced on
Avellino which led to an uprising General Pepe,
infantry and Calvary joined the rebels.
Government troops were half-hearted in their
round-up of rebels. Ferdinand was forced into
promising a Constitution in July 1820.
Revolutionaries were received by the King who
swore to defend the Constitution and a new
Government appointed with Pepe in
charge. Consequences? The Austrian Prime Minister
Metternich met with King. In March 1821 the
Austrian army entered Naples and reasserted
absolute rule. Arrests, imprisonments and
executions were common. 1820 SICILY Causes? Wante
d independence from Naples Events? Riots in
Palermo led to demands for a Constitutional
Government. Offices were burnt down, prisoners
released, Governor sent home and revolutionaries
took over city. Consequences? Put down by
Austrians after they had dealt with Naples
(above).
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1821 PIEDMONT Causes? King Victor Emmanuel was
very reactionary and an Absolute
Monarch. Events? Naples revolution was heard
about in Piedmont and Carbonari and
revolutionaries joined together to form a
revolutionary Government in the town of
Alessandria. There they pronounced an independent
Kingdom of Italy and declared war on
Austria. Army mutiny in Turin led to Victor
Emanuel abdicating. Liberals turned to Charles
Albert. Charles Felix (in line to throne before
Charles Albert. denounced him and Charles
Albert fled). Consequences? Austria troops
supported Charles Felix and defeated Turin
Liberals. Rebels fled to exile. 1831 PARMA
and MODENA Causes? Excited by revs in France and
others in Italy led to revolts breaking
out. Events? Revolutionaries wanted a
constitution. In Modena the revolt was led by
Enrico Misley (but he was arrested 2 days before
the uprising in Feb 1831. Revolutionaries took
over Modena and set up a Provisional Government.
Students rioted and demanded a constitution Conseq
uences? Duke Francesco negotiated Austrian help
and he returned and savagely dealt with riots.
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THE EARLY REVOLUTIONS OF 1830-1 1830 PAPAL
STATES Causes? Organised by professional classes
who resented oppressive rule by the
church. Events? The Papal Government put up
little resistance and a provisional Government
The Government of the Italian Provinces was
formed in Bologna in February 1831. Consequences?
Once the Austrians had regrouped they supported
the Pope and Austria troops defeated and severely
suppressed rebels
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WHAT CAN WE LEARN FROM THE FAILURES OF THE EARLY
REVOLUTIONS? OBSTACLES TO UNIFICATION LEADERSHIP
Someone/state needed to lead a unification
movement/plan. No one was willing to
yet. UNIFICATION Unification/Nationalist ideas
needed to be discussed and wanted. E.g. Sicily
wanted independence from Naples COMMON
GOALS Ideas of Unification/getting rid of Austria
etc. needed to be agreed. All states in
20s/30s wanted different things. INTERNATIONAL
SUPPORT Italy needed support of a strong country
e.g. France if they were going to unite and get
rid of Austria. AUSTRIA Austria crushed all of
the early Revolutions. When she was perceived as
weak states took their chance at revolution.
However without foreign support Austria was too
strong to be fully ousted.
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OVERCOMING OBSTACLES 3 NATIONALIST LEADERS These
discussed and talked about Uniting Italy, and
Who will lead this, so they were beginning to
think about overcoming L.U.C.I.A
problems. GIUSEPPE MAZZINI He wanted all
Italians to rise up and overthrow their Absolute
Leaders. He used propaganda in the call for
violent insurrection. He wanted democracy,
freedom and patriotism and he eventually saw a
United States of Europe, which was a little ahead
of his time. He was a Republican and wanted an
elected leader. His organisation Young Italy
was the way he educated followers like Garibaldi
and used the group to express his views. However,
he was too intellectual for the masses and his
ideas did not have mass appeal. VINCENZO
GIOBERTI Published Of the Moral and Civil
Primacy of the Italians 1843. He rejected
revolution. He wanted a Federation of states with
the existing rulers uniting under the
Pope. CESARE BALBO Published Of the Aspirations
of Italy in 1844. Also believed that a
democratic, United Italy was undesirable. He
simply wanted to expel Austrians. He wanted
Piedmont Sardinias King to take on leadership
of new Italian federation.
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2. Revolutions in Italy 1848-49 LONG - TERM
CAUSES OF 1848 REVOLUTIONS
FORCES OF CONTINUITY (IMPOSED AT VIENNA) V FORCES OF CHANGE (IMPACT OF NAPOLEON) EVIDENCE
ABSOLUTE AND REACTIONARY MONARCHS IMPOSED AT VIENNA V LIBERAL AND NATIONAL IDEAS Revolutions of 1820 31, e.g. Piedmont Libs reacted against the Reactionary Monarchy to impose a constitution
LANDOWNERS BACK IN POWER AND SUPPORTING MONARCHS V RISING MIDDLE CLASS (BETTER EDUCATED AND WHO HAD POWER - MERITOCRACY MIDDLE CLASS REV GROUPS Liberals, Nationals, Young Italy, Carbonari etc
ROLE OF POPE AND CHURCH (IN STATES AND EDUCATION V CHALLENGES TO TEMPORAL/SECULARROLE OF CHURCH MAZZINIS IDEAS AND YOUNG ITALY
PEACE (AFTER SUCH A PROLONGED WAR) V NATIONALISM Revs of 20s and 30s and MAZZINIS CALL FOR INSURRECTION
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SHORT TERM CAUSES OF 1848 REVOLUTIONS A
LIBERAL POPE Pius IX elected Pope in 1846. He
was a liberal and granted amnesty in all
political prisoners. Reforms followed in admin,
law, education and he introduced the Consulta
to advise him. Council members were elected.
His reforms were copied in Piedmont and Tuscany.
Perhaps he would lead unification? LIBERAL
REFORMS Copied from Papal States in Piedmont and
Tuscany ECONOMIC CRISIS Disastrous harvests of
1846 and 1847 led to food shortages in rural and
urban areas. High prices and static wages
revolutionary activities amongst masses. OTHER
REVOLUTIONARY OUTBREAKS IN EUROPE Revolutions
were breaking out all over Europe. E.g. in
France, and Austria. Metternich even was forced
out. Austrian weakness gave the Italian
Revolutionaries the opportunity they had been
waiting for. (Need to then mention each
individual states causes of Revolution in terms
of ousting Austria getting rid of church
influence and Sicilys call for independence.)
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CAUSES, EVENTS AND CONSEQUENCES OF THE 1848
REVOLUTIONS. THOSE WHO WANTED AUSTRIA OUT

• LOMBARDY
• Causes
• Controlled by Austria. Trouble began in Milan
  with a Tobacco boycott. Tobacco was a state
  monopoly (Austrian) and people believed it would
  affect Austrian finances.
• Events
• Austrian soldiers who smoked in public were
  attacked small scale fights turned into riots and
  became a full scale revolution known as the Five
  Days
• (17-22 March) Austrian commander 81 year old
  General Radetsky withdrew from the city (mainly
  because revolutions had broken out in Austria)
• Provisional Government was set up in Milan by
  revolutionaries and they asked for support from
  Charles Albert (who had granted a constitution).
  He agreed to declare war on Austria
• Consequences
• Charles Albert (Piedmont) was defeated by the
  Austrians twice in Custoza and Novara. Austrians
  then suppressed the revolution in Lombardy

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CAUSES, EVENTS AND CONSEQUENCES OF THE 1848
REVOLUTIONS.

• PIEDMONT
• Causes
• Piedmont became involved with war after the
  revolutionaries in Milan asked for Charles
  Alberts (King of Piedmonts) help and he agreed.
• Events
• Charles Albert first had success and his army
  defeated the Austrians at the end of May 1848.
  The Popes army Commander independently set off
  with troops and joined Alberts Army. The Pope
  was forced to issue the Papal Allocution stating
  that was with Austria was wrong.
• Consequences
• By June 1848 reinforcements arrived in Austria
  and in July Alberts army was defeated by the
  Austrians at Custoza. An armistice was signed
  and Piedmont withdrew from Lombardy. Albert
  re-started the war in March 1849. Within a month
  he was finally defeated at the Battle of Novara.
  Albert abdicated.

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CAUSES, EVENTS AND CONSEQUENCES OF THE 1848
REVOLUTIONS.
TUSCANY Causes News of Metternichs fall and
the revolution in Austria led to the Tuscan
Government sending an army to fight the
Austrians. Events Workers in the cities began
to complain about pay and conditions and middle
class radicals called for Republicanism. January
1849 the Grand Duke left. A revolutionary
Provisional Government was set up and a dictator
appointed. Consequences After Charles Albert
was defeated in Novara the Austrians swept
through and restored the Grand Duke.
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CAUSES, EVENTS AND CONSEQUENCES OF THE 1848
REVOLUTIONS.

• PARMA AND MODENA
• Causes
• Revolts broke out once Piedmont began war with
  the Austrians.
• Events
• Rulers fled when revolts broke out
• Consequences
• Once Alberts army was defeated, Austrians swept
  through and restored the leaders

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CAUSES, EVENTS AND CONSEQUENCES OF THE 1848
REVOLUTIONS.

• VENETIA
• Causes
• Austrian controlled. Small outbreaks of violence
  occurred copying other states actions.
• Events
• After a small scale revolt, the Austrians
  surrendered and in March 1848 the Independent
  Venetian Republic of St Mark was proclaimed.
• Consequences
• It held out against a siege by the Austrian navy
  in the summer of 1849. However, a cholera
  outbreak caused problems. The Venetians, driven
  by hunger and disease surrendered to the
  Austrians in August 1849

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CAUSES, EVENTS AND CONSEQUENCES OF THE 1848
REVOLUTIONS. THOSE WHO WANTED INDEPENDENCE

• SICILY AND NAPLES
• Causes
• Sicilians wanted to break from Naples.
• Ferdinand II King of Naples made reforms but then
  took them away and used severe repression.
• Cholera outbreak (added to above) desperate
  people.
• Events
• January 1845 a notice went up in Palermo telling
  Sicilians how they could get weapons.
• Government troops clashed with Sicilians.
  Peasants from outside city joined in. 2 days
  later 5000 Neapolitan reinforcements arrived in
  City.
• Rebels wanted constitution (restoration of the
  one in 1812). By April a compromise was rejected
  and revolutionaries had taken over most of the
  island.
• A provisional Government was set up via Middle
  Class Moderates. A civic guard controlled the
  masses. A parliament was elected that declared
  Naples and Sicily separate.
• Revolution then spread to the mainland of Naples.
  Demonstrators there demanded a Constitution.
• The King was forced to agree to 2 Chamber
  Parliament with limited power. He agreed to form
  a National Guard, abolish press censorship and
  sort out peasants grievances over land.
• Consequences
• Peasants were quickly suppressed. Sicilians were
  defeated and by the spring of 1849 forced to
  accept reunification with Naples.
• The King then abolished all reforms.

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CAUSES, EVENTS AND CONSEQUENCES OF THE 1848
REVOLUTIONS. THOSE WHO WANTED TO SEPARATE CHURCH
AND STATE
ROME Causes The Popes unpopular Chief Minister
was murdered at the end of November 1848 Events
The Pope fled when rioting broke out and
went to Naples. The Government in Rome announced
a series of reforms. It abolished the tax for
grinding corn, provided public building work for
the unemployed and proposed a Constituente a
meeting of representatives from all over Italy in
Rome. The election of representatives were
organised by the Council of States (chosen by the
Government of Rome) and met in February 1849.
Garibaldi was amongst it members. It proclaimed
an end to the temporal power of the Pope and
established the Roman Republic. This was ruled
by Mazzini who arrived in March as the Head of a
triumvirate who ruled the city fairly and
tolerantly. Consequences The Pope appealed to
the French, Spanish and Naples. The French sent
an army. Despite a gallant defence of the city by
Garibaldi, the city fell to the French in June
1849. The Pope returned to Rome on the 12th
April 1850.
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• WHY DID THE 1848 REVOLUTIONS FAIL?
• LEADERSHIP
• FAILURES OF THE POPE, ALBERT AND MAZZINI
• POPE - Liberal but after Roman Revolution he fled
  to Naples and refused to lead unifications and
  issued the Papal Allocution 2. CHARLES ALBERT -
  Called on by Lombardy and Venetia to lead.
  Tuscany sent an army and were joined by the
  Popes army (against his wishes). He failed at
  Custoza and Novara 23rd March 1849 and resigned.
  3. MAZZINI - Roman Republic set up and was
  liberal and his attempt at bringing a
  constituente together. French crushed it June
  1849 and restored the Pope
• UNITING STATES - FAILURE TO UNITE
• Piedmont led and united with Lombardy, Tuscany
  and Venetia but were crushed by the Austrians.
  Albert refused to allow volunteers from other
  states into his army weaker army than he could
  have had. Local revolutionaries had no
  coordinated guidance.
• Sicily actually wanted independence from Naples.
  The Constituente in Rome attempted to unite
  representatives from each state but failed after
  French crushed the Roman Republic.
• COMMON GOALS - NO COMMON GOALS
• REPUBLICANISM? CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY?
  FEDERATION?
• Each provisional Government set up different
  types of Governments
• Attempt by the Roman Republic and Constituente
  to bring representatives from all over Italy but
  failed after the French crushed Republic. All
  states wanted separate, things (except the
  majority wanted Austria out)
• No popular support. Life didnt change for the
  peasants under the provisional governments. Their
  only concern was for food.
• INTERNATIONAL SUPPORT
• NO INTERNATIONAL SUPPORT
• The French were actually involved in restoring
  the Pope in Rome. France could have been an ally,
  but was too concerned about the Popes influence
  on the Catholic powers in Europe. Austrian army
  was too strong to be defeated by Italy alone.
• AUSTRIA
• AUSTRIAS WEAKNESS led to revolts in Lombardy,
  Venetia, Piedmont, Parma and Modena and Tuscany.
  AUSTRIAS STRENGTH led to the Crushing of
  Piedmont at Custoza and Novara and then swept
  through and restored leaders of all of the above
  except the Pope

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DEVELOPMENT OF PIEDMONT IN THE 1850S POSITION OF
PIEDMONT BY EARLY 1850s SIGNIFICANT EVENTS UP TO
THE EARLY 1850s 1720 Dukes of Savoy (rulers of
Piedmont) become rulers of Sardinia. 1802-14 Fren
ch rule liberated constitution. No real
opposition to French 1815 Victor Emmanuel I
restored Monarch Absolutism returned.
Piedmont also controlled Genoa. 1819 Charles
Albert (2nd in line to throne) returned to
Piedmont and saw repression. 1820-21 Albert
led revolution in Piedmont. Genoa declared its
independence. Victor Emmanuel abdicated in
1820, Charles Felix succeeded him, but died in
1831.1831 Charles Albert becomes King of
Piedmont. Initially reactionary later
Liberal 1848 The Statuto (Constitution) was
created that would later become the
constitution of a United Italy in 1860s. 23rd
March Albert declared war on Austria. Defeated
at Custoza. 1849 Defeated in Novara. Albert
abdicates and his son Victor Emmanuel II becomes
King. Overall The Statuto remained and Piedmont
had a free press, elected assembly, Civil and
legal liberties.
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POSITION OF CAVOUR BY EARLY 1850S 1811 Born in
Piedmont Attended Royal Military Academy Became
an officer in the Army 1833 Visited Britain and
was impressed by Industrial Revolution 1835 Re
turned to Piedmont to run family
estate. 1847 Wrote Il Risorgimento 1848 Became
an MP and was seen as non revolutionary and
liberal. 1850 Became Minister of Agriculture,
Commerce and the Navy. Arranged free-trade
treaties. 1851 Became Minister of finance began
building railways. 1852 Formed a new Central
Party. Became Prime Minister. Joined Crimean
War against Russia1856 Sat at Peace Conference
on almost equal terms with Great
Powers 1858 Secretly met with Napoleon III at
Plombieres. 1859 Austria declared war on Piedmont
on 29th April 1859. 1861 Died
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POSITION OF GARIBALDI BY EARLY 1850s 1807 Born
in Nice 1831 In the merchant navy he met Mazzini,
Member of Young Italy. 1833 Involved in Mazzinis
plot in Piedmont, forced to flee and was
sentenced to death in his absence. Became a
pirate in the New World Joined a rebel army in
Brazil Fled with a fishermans wife Sold
spaghetti in Uruguay. Defended Uruguay against
Argentina and won 1848 Returned to Italy for the
revolutions. Offered his services to Charles
Albert but was refused. 1849 Garibaldi went to
newly created Roman Republic to help Mazzini
resist French. He did manage to push them back
but 3rd July 1849 Roman Republic fell to
French. He collected 5000 men and began to
march over 800km across Adriatic Coast. Short
of food and water and pursued by enemies only
1,500 men made it (his wife died). Escaped to
Genoa. Went to North America. 1859 Piedmont now
ruled by Victor Emmanuel and Cavour. Garibaldi
was invited to return in preparation for war
against Austria.
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POSITION OF PIEDMONT 1852-59 EXTERNAL/FOREIGN
AFFAIRS Crimean War After Cavour was persuaded
to support the Allies in the Crimean War,
Piedmont and Cavour had a seat at the Peace
Conference in 1856 as an equal partner. Cavour
formed a bond with Napoleon III France and Cavour
met Napoleon at Plombieres in July 1858 to gain
French support against planned war with
Austria. War with Austria 1859 INTERNAL/POLITICAL
Piedmont had a constitution and was liberal
which meant c. 30,000 political exiles fled
there. As a result Piedmont became the centre of
the Nationalist Movement and the radical press
flourished. Cavour manipulated the National
Society under Pallavicino to call for political
unification of Italy led by Piedmont. Cavour
wanted Austria out at this point, he didnt take
unification seriously at first. Cavour engineered
the Connubio a political marriage between
Centre-Left and Centre-Right which strengthened
Parliament against the crown, allowed him to pass
legislation and allowed him to become Prime
Minister in 1852. The Siccardi Laws of 1850 ended
secular power of the Church which further
strengthened Cavour and Piedmonts
power. INTERNAL/ECONOMIC Cavour became Minister
of Commerce, Trade and the Navy in 1850 and later
became Minister of Finance in 1851-52, before
becoming PM. Trade Treaties were set up with
Britain, France, Belgium and Austria. During the
50s foreign trade trebled (increased by 300. A
railway network was created to cover 1/3 Italy
(850km) . Farming and factories were
industrialised and a National Bank was
established (The Bank of Turin).
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UNIFICATION PROCESS OVERIEW STAGE 1 Acquisition
of Lombardy France and Italy go to War with
Austria 1859. The Battles of Magenta and
Solferino were particularly bloody. Napoleon
calls for an armistice at Villa Franca but gives
Lombardy to Piedmont. STAGE 2 Acquisition of
Tuscany, Modena, Parma and Romagna Central
states voted for annexation to Piedmont. Cavour
persuades French to accept this by promising her
Nice and Savoy. STAGE 3 Acquisition of Sicily
and Naples and Papal States Garibaldi defeated
Neapolitan army in June 1860 with his thousand.
Naples surrendered September 1860. He hands
over conquests over to Piedmont and Victor
Emmanuel II. March 1861 The
Kingdom of Italy is proclaimed STAGE
4 Acquisition of Venetia and Rome Venetia added
1866 after Austro Prussian war. Rome added 1870
as France was fighting against Prussia in the
Franco-Prussian War.
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• BUILD UP TO WAR THE PACT OF PLOMBIERES
• THE ORSINI PLOT
• On 14th January 1858 four Italians led by Count
  Felice Orsini attempted to assassinate Napoleon.
  They believed it would lead the restoration of
  the Republic in France and ultimately gain
  support for Italian Unification. They failed and
  were arrested.
• At his trial Orsini appealed to Napoleon to
  support Italian unification. Napoleon was so
  impressed with his arguments that he met with
  Cavour.
• THE PACT OF PLOMBIERES
• They met at Plombieres. In return for Cavours
  assurance that Italian Nationalists would be
  suppressed in Piedmont, as long as he gained a
  wife for his cousin Jerome, he would send French
  troops if a war was to commence between Austria
  and Italy, as long as Austria was the aggressor.
• It was finally agreed that A Kingdom of Upper
  Italy (ruled by Piedmont) would be created to
  include Piedmont, Lombardy, Venetia, Parma,
  Modena and the Papal Legations. Central Italy
  would be controlled by Tuscany, Rome would remain
  in the Popes hands, Naples would remain
  separate. In return for 200,000 French troops
  Napoleon would gain Nice and Savoy and Victor
  Emmanuels daughter, the 15 year old Marie
  Clothilde would marry the middle-aged Prince
  Jerome.

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• STAGE 1 ACQUISITION OF LOMBARDY
• The Pact of Plombieres set up the agreement
  between Cavour and Napoleon III. Cavour now
  needed to provoke war with Austria. Victor
  Emmanuel delivered a provocative speech on 12th
  December 1859 but it had little effect. Cavour
  mobilised the Piedmontese Army in March 1859. The
  Austrians followed suit. The Austrians demanded
  the Piedmontese army to demobilise within three
  days. It didnt and Austria declared war on
  Piedmont on 29th April. The French sent their
  army. Piedmont ensured the National Society
  engineered revolutions in central and northern
  Italy.
• WAR WITH AUSTRIA 1859
• Two minor victories by the Piedmontese army at
  Palestro and by Garibaldis Cacciatori delle
  Alpi at Como in May 1859 paved the way for the
  two main battles of the war.
• The Battles of Magenta and Solferino (4th and
  24th June) Austria was defeated at both (although
  only just). The Carnage was horrific (led to the
  Red Cross being set up) and Austria didnt look
  as if it would pull out of N Italy. So Napoleon
  secretly made peace with Austria at Villafranca
  on 8th July 1859.
• Villafranca this concluded that Austria would
  give Lombardy to France to pass to Piedmont (but
  not give up Venetia). Piedmont was not to acquire
  the central states and the Pope would lead an
  Italian confederation of states.
• Cavour resigned before the official end of war
  at the Treaty of Zurich Nov 1859.

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• STAGE 2 ACQUISITION OF TUSCANY, MODENA, PARMA
  AND ROMAGNA
• Napoleon however declared that the Popes
  temporal role was in decline and met with Cavour
  (back as PM on 21st Jan 1860).
• Cavour agreed to hand over Nice and Savoy to
  France as long as France would accept annexation
  by Piedmont of the Central duchies. This was
  agreed as long as the central duchies held
  plebiscites and voted in favour of Piedmontese
  annexation.
• Cavour manipulated the National Society to cause
  unrest in the Central Sates to initially give him
  a bargaining tool over Napoleon. He then used
  them to rig the plebiscites which worked as all
  were in favour.
• Cavour gained easy expansion of Piedmont through
  the support of the National Society and through
  clever diplomacy with Napoleon.

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• STAGE 3 ACQUISITION OF SICILY, NAPLES AND THE
  PAPAL STATES
• Garibaldi initially gathered an army of the
  thousand to meet to prevent the surrender of
  Nice to France. However they heard that a revolt
  was breaking out in Sicily. Many of his men were
  Sicilians and he was persuaded by Crispi and Pilo
  to sail south. Garibaldi decide he would liberate
  Italy in the name of Italy and Victor Emmanuel.
  He arrived in Sicily on 11th May 1860. He was
  faced with little opposition and his army grew in
  size from new recruits. His army was well trained
  and he was an outstanding leader, despite limited
  ammunition he defeated the Neapolitan army at
  Calatafimi on 15th May and Sicily was acquired by
  the end of July.
• September 1860 (despite many attempts by Cavour
  to stop him) Garibaldi conquered Naples and
  planned his next stage - the papal states.
  Cavour decided to act. He used the National
  Society to begin a riot and he ordered the papal
  army to disband. When they didnt he sent in the
  Piedmontese army. (France didnt mind as long as
  they stayed away from Rome).
• On the 18th September the Papal army was
  defeated by Piedmont at the Battle of
  Castelfidaro. Garibaldi had to defeat the
  surviving Neapolitan army on 26th October 1860 at
  the Battle of Volturno.
• On the 26 October Victor Emmanuel and Garibaldi
  met at the head of the two armies. Garibaldi
  handed over his acquisitions and returned to
  Caprera. The new Kingdom of Italy was
  proclaimed with Victor Emmanuel II the King in
  1861.

30

• STAGE 4 ACQUISITION OF VENETIA AND ROME
• Cavour died in June 1861 from Malaria. He was
  succeeded by Baron Riscali and then Rattazzi.
  Early 1862 Garibaldi set up the Society for the
  Emancipation of Italy. In June he set sail for
  Sicily (on way to Rome) with support from
  Rattazzi. However, the French looked to get
  involved and Rattazzi sent a military force to
  block Garibaldi. At Aspromonte Garibaldis army
  surrendered to the Piedmontese but only after
  Garibaldi was shot badly in the leg. Garibaldi
  was later pardoned but Rattazzi was sacked. His
  successors were all weak.
• VENICE
• Venice was gained through diplomacy and the
  Austro-Prussian War 1866. War. Bismarck (Prussia)
  and Napoleon met at Biarritz in Oct 1865.
  Napoleon promised to remain neutral in a war
  between Prussia and Austria. Italy agreed to
  fight for Prussia in return for Venice. Napoleon
  double crossed Prussia and also made a treaty
  with Austria saying she would stay neutral in a
  war between Austria and Prussia if she would gain
  Venice!! As it happened Austria defeated Italy at
  the Battle of Custozza. But as Prussia won (at
  Sadowa) she handed over Venice to France, who in
  return handed it to Italy.
• ROME
• Sept 1864 Napoleon agreed to evacuate Rome as
  long as Italy switched capital from Turin to
  Florence. Later it was again diplomacy and war
  that led to Piedmont gaining Rome. Prussia
  provoked France into the Franco-Prussian War in
  1870. France troops left Rome to fight the
  Prussians. Piedmont seized the opportunity to
  take Rome and it was pronounced the new Capital
  City in 1870.

31

• HOW UNITED WAS ITALY AFTER 1861?
• Rome and Venetia outside
• Venetia was not successfully won back from
  Austria until the Austro-Prussian War in 1866.
  Even so, it was only claimed back through support
  of Napoleon III and Bismarck in Prussia and only
  after a humiliating defeat of Italy by the
  Austrian navy.
• Garibaldi made two unsuccessful attempts in 1862
  and 1867 to invade and take Rome. However, Rome
  didnt become part of Italy until the
  Franco-Prussian War in 1870 and again only after
  Napoleon IIIs army left the city. Rome was the
  natural capital and failure to include it in 1860
  had been a grave disappointment for the liberals.
  1870 saw the end of the Popes temporal powers
  and Rome was finally declared the capital.

32

• HOW UNITED WAS ITALY AFTER 1861?
• Who leads Italy and what form of Government?
• Cavours successors as PM were of poor quality
  in the 1860s. No-one had charisma, leadership
  qualities or could be seen as equal terms to the
  heroes of the Risorgimento. Only in power for
  short time. Farrini had a mental breakdown had
  tried to knife the king and was removed after
  three months. Ratazzi became involved in the
  failed attacks on Rome and was forced to resign.
  However others believe they did good work and
  were successful and important, e.g. philosopher
  Benedette Croce wrote in defence of them.
• The Communist historian, Antonio Gramsci, said
  they were moderate liberals who had managed to
  outwit democratic republicans and set up
  government. 1861 Italy was a Constitutional
  Monarchy not the republic Mazzini dreamt of,
  nor a federation under the Pope as Gioberti,
  Cavour and Napoleon III had proposed. The
  Constitution was based on Charles Alberts
  Statuto of 1848. The sovereign body was the King
  in parliament and not the people as Mazzini
  hoped.
• It was not a true democracy but an
  unsatisfactory parliamentary democracy.
  Government was Piedmontese nobility and educated
  middle classes minority who formed the elite and
  an all male parliament. Electors were male, over
  25 years, literate and tax paying (about 2 of
  population). Most were from Northern Italy,
  therefore parliament was well-to-do traditionally
  minded liberals and unrepresentative of masses.

33

• HOW UNITED WAS ITALY AFTER 1861?
• Various Armies
• In the 1860s a Unified Italian army was formed
  out of armies of Piedmont, Naples, Central
  Italian states and Garibaldis Army of the
  South. Army was modernised and re-organised
  along Prussian lines. Navies of Piedmont and
  Naples amalgamated into single force but was not
  modernised until 1876.
• Pope Pius IX
• Lost Temporal Power but retained spiritual power
  now outside of Italy. He resided in the
  Vatican but called himself a prisoner. He
  declared all Catholics who worked for new secular
  state would be excommunicated.
• The Church had always been a unifying element,
  but now many liberal minded Catholics who
  supported secular government but also wished to
  keep the faith found themselves in a difficult
  position.
• Over the next few decades Pope became even more
  hostile to Italian states.

34

• HOW UNITED WAS ITALY AFTER 1861?
• North/South Divide
• First the new Northern government tried to
  ignore problems of uniting with South. When this
  didnt work, it forced the Piedmontese style of
  government in the South. Very unsuitable as in
  Naples and Sicily the problems were not so much
  political, but social and economic. The majority
  of the population in the South were illiterate,
  lived in poverty and squalor and at near
  starvation. Landowners continued to enclose land
  which left less land available for peasants
  starvation. But government introduced higher
  taxation! The cost of living rose and the
  quality of peasants life even lower. With added
  problems of new legal systems and conscription
  many left to hills of Naples and Sicily to avoid
  military service and lived as bandits instead.
  Many others joined the Mafia. Public opinion
  turned against landowners and against Victor
  Emmanuel II and Piedmont. Peasants began
  migrating to towns to find work and often found
  nothing turn to crime.
• In 1860s law and order in Sicily and Naples
  broke down. Bandits became bolder and rural
  discontent fuelled a revolution which turned to
  civil war more people were killed than the
  total in the Risorgimento. The Piedmontese
  army of 100,000 men took 4 years to suppress from
  1861-1865
• Throughout the 1860s the North and South
  remained as far apart as ever.

35

• HOW UNITED WAS ITALY AFTER 1861?
• Economic Integration Customs and Laws
• Legal codes of individual states formed into a
  single penal (criminal) code based on that of
  Piedmont (only Tuscany kept its code).
• In 1865 a single system of civil law similar to
  Frances code Napoleon was adapted. It allowed
  civil marriage, though divorce still illegal.
• Foreign policy, foreign ministry and diplomatic
  service all based on Piedmont.
• The standard of living fell throughout Italy.
  The King wanted to continue the war and therefore
  taxation was high and peasants struggled.

36

• EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
• OBSTACLES TO UNIFICATION/NATIONALISM
• How far do you agree that the greatest obstacle
  to the growth of Nationalism in Italy between
  1815-1870 was the influence of Austria?
• 2. How far do you agree that the limited appeal
  of Mazzinis ideas were the main reason for the
  slow progress of National unity in Italy 1815-48?
• 3. How far do you agree that the greatest
  obstacle to the growth of Nationalism in Italy
  between 1815-1870 was the influence of the
  Catholic Church?
• 4. How far do you agree that the greatest
  obstacle to the growth of Nationalism in Italy
  between 1815-1870 was the lack of Foreign
  support?
• 5. How far do you agree that the greatest
  obstacle to the growth of Nationalism in Italy
  between 1815-1870 was the divisions amongst the
  Nationalists themselves?

37

• OTHER EARLY QUESTIONS
• What caused the series of National and Liberal
  uprisings in Italy 1848?
• How far was the failure of the 1848 Revolutions
  in Italy due to the intervention of foreign
  powers?
• What did the revolutionary groups learn from
  their mistakes in the 1848 Revolutions that
  allowed them to unify Italy between 1859-70?
• UNIFICATION ESSAYS
• How significant was Cavour in determining the
  outcome of Italian Unification 1850-1870?
• How significant was Garibaldi in determining the
  outcome of Italian Unification?
• How significant was the contribution of Victor
  Emmanuel in determining the outcome of Italian
  Unification?
• How significant was Piedmonts Political and
  Economic Developments in determining the outcome
  of Italian Unification?
• How significant was the role of France in
  determining the outcome of Italian Unification?
• How accurate is it to suggest that foreign
  intervention was the most important factor
  influencing the unification of Italy?
• HOW UNITED WAS ITALY IN 1870?
• How far do you agree, that although Italy was
  politically united with Rome as its capital by
  1870, it was fundamentally not a unified state?