Chapter 17 REVOLUTION AND ENLIGHTENMENT

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Chapter 17REVOLUTIONAND ENLIGHTENMENT

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Background to the Revolution

• In the 15th and 16th centuries, natural
  philosophers began to give up their old views and
  developed new ones. They would no longer rely on
  Aristotle for their scientific knowledge
• The invention of new instruments, such as the
  telescope and the microscope, made new scientific
  discoveries possible.
• The printing press helped to spread the ideas
  more quickly.
• The new theories of Nicholas Copernicus, Johannes
  Kepler, Galileo Galilei, and Isaac Newton became
  the foundation of the Scientific Revolution.

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A Revolution in Astronomy

• Discoveries in astronomy changed how Westerners
  viewed the universe.
• During the Middle Ages they believed in a
  Ptolemaic system after Ptolemy. This system is
  called geocentric because it places the Earth at
  the center of the universe.
• The Earth is fixed, motionless, at the center of
  these spheres, which rotate around the Earth.

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• Nicolas Copernicus believed in a heliocentric, or
  sun-centered, model of the universe. The planets
  including the Earth revolved around the sun.
• Johannes Kepler created the laws of planetary
  motion. His observations confirmed that the Sun
  was the center of the universe and that the
  orbits of the planet were elliptical not
  circular.

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• Galileo Galilei discovered mountains on the moon,
  four moons revolving around Jupiter, and sunspots
  with the telescope. After publishing The Starry
  Messenger, the Church asked him to abandon the
  Copernican system. This new system threatened
  the Churchs view of the universe and seemed to
  contradict the Bible.

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• Isaac Newton is considered the greatest genius of
  the Scientific Revolution. He defined his 3 laws
  of motion that govern both the planetary bodies
  and objects on Earth.
• The universal law of gravitation explains why the
  planetary bodies do not go off in straight lines
  but continue in elliptical orbits around the Sun.
  The law states that every object in the universe
  is attracted to every other object by a force
  called gravity. He created a new picture of the
  universe.

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Breakthroughs in medicine and Chemistry

• Andreas Vesalius presented a careful and
  accurate examination of human organs and the
  general structure of the human body.
• William Harvey showed that the heart was the
  beginning point for the circulation of blood in
  the body. Proved that the blood flows through
  both veins and arteries in a complete circuit.

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• Robert Boyle was one of the first scientists to
  conduct controlled experiments. Boyles Law
  which states that the volume of a gas varies with
  the pressure exerted on it.
• Antoine Lavoisier invented a system of naming the
  chemical elements. Considered by many to be the
  founder of modern chemistry.

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Women and the Orgins of Modern Science

• Margaret Cavendish one of the most prominent
  female scientists. She was critical of the
  belief that humans, through science, were masters
  of nature.
• Maria Winkelmann discovered a comet. Denied a
  position at the Berlin Academy because of being a
  woman.
• Scientific work was considered to be mens work.

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Descartes and Reason

• Rene Descartes, a French philosopher wrote
  Discourse on Method. His 1st principle was I
  think, therefore I am. His 2nd principle was
  the mind cannot be doubted but the body and
  material world can, the two must be radically
  different. Known as the Father of Modern
  Rationalism- system of thought that is based on
  the belief that reason is the chief source of
  knowledge.

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The Scientific Method

• Francis Bacon developed the scientific method is
  a systematic procedure for collecting and
  analyzing evidence. He believed that you should
  use inductive reasoning to learn about nature.
  Systematic observations and carefully organized
  experiments to test hypotheses would lead to
  general principles.

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• Section 2

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Path to the Enlightenment

• The Enlightenment was an 18th century
  philosophical movement of intellectuals that
  hoped that they could make progress towards a
  better society.
• Believed that they could discover natural laws
  that govern human society.
• John Locke believed that people were born with
  blank minds and were molded by the experiences
  that came through their senses from the
  surrounding world. He believed that if
  environments were changed and people were exposed
  to the right influences, people could be changed
  and a new society could be created.

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Philosophes and Their Ideas

• Philosophes were intellectuals of the
  Enlightenment. The purpose of philosophy was to
  change the world.
• Montesquieu Tried to find natural laws that
  govern the social and political relationships of
  human beings. Discussed how the English monarchy
  functioned on a separation of powers which
  prevented one person from gaining too much power
  and provided the greatest freedom and security
  for the state. Influenced the U.S. Constitution.

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• Francois-Marie Arouet (Voltaire) well known for
  his criticism of Christianity and his strong
  belief in religious tolerance. Believed in deism
  based on reason and natural law. In their view,
  a mechanic (God) created the universe, set it in
  motion, and allowed it run without his
  interference, according to its own natural laws.
• Denis Diderot helped spread the ideas of the
  Enlightenment through the Encyclopedia, a
  collection of knowledge on many subjects. Called
  for social, legal, and political improvements
  that could lead to a more tolerant and humane
  society.

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Toward a New Social Science

• The Physiocrats believed in laissez-faire meaning
  let the people do what they want. all society
  would ultimately benefit.
• Adam Smith wrote The Wealth of Nations.
  Believed that government should not interfere in
  economic matters. Government should protect
  society from invasion, defend citizens from
  injustice, and keep up certain public works
  (roads canals).

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• By the 18th century, most European states had
  developed a system of courts. Punishments were
  cruel with the thought that it would deter crime.
• Cesare Beccaria believed that punishments should
  not be cruel and that it did not deter people
  from committing crimes.

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The Later Enlightenment

• Jean-Jacques Rousseau argued that people adopted
  laws and government in order to protect their
  property. Wrote The Social Contract which says
  that an entire society agrees to be govern by its
  general will. Sought a balance between emotions
  and reason.

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Rights of Women

• Mary Wollstonecraft viewed as the founder of the
  movement of womens rights. She argued that if
  government based on the arbitrary power of
  monarch was wrong, the power of men over women
  was equally wrong.

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Religion in the Enlightenment

• Most European in the 18th century were
  Christians.
• People sought a deeper personal devotion to God.
• John Wesley converted people to the faith of
  Methodist. Gave middle and lower class sense of
  purpose and community.

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• Section 3

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The Arts

• New artistic style called rococo which emphasized
  grace, charm, and gentle action.
• Johann Sebastian Bach and George Frederick Handel
  were two musical geniuses who composed music in
  the baroque style.
• Franz Joseph Haydn and Wofgang Amadeus composed
  classical music.

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Enlightenment and Enlightened Absolutism

• The philosophes believed in natural rights for
  all people equality before the law, freedom of
  religious worship, speech, press, right to
  assemble, hold property, and pursue happiness.
• Enlightened Absolutism meant that rulers tried to
  govern by Enlightenment principles while
  maintaining their royal powers.

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• Prussian Kings made them into a major European
  power in the 18th century.
• Frederick William I maintained a highly efficient
  bureaucracy of civil service workers and doubled
  the size of the army.
• Frederick William II (Frederick the Great)
  abolished the use of torture, except in murder
  and treason. Granted limited freedom of speech
  and press as well as complete religious
  toleration. Kept serfdom and the social
  structure of Prussia.

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• The Austrian Empire had been one of the great
  European states. Difficult to rule due to
  different nationalities, languages, religions,
  and cultures. Reforms upset many.
• Catherine the Great ruled Russia from 1762-1796.
  Extends the Russian empire toward the Black Sea.

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The Seven Years War

• The French-Austrian rivalry was replaced by the
  rivalry of France and Britain over colonial
  empires and the rivalry of Austria and Prussia
  over Silesia.
• There were now 2 major alliances in Europe
  France, Austria, and Russia against Britain and
  Prussia.
• The war in Europe eventually ended in a stalemate
  when Russia withdrew from the conflict. The war
  in Europe ended in 1763.
• The war continued in India and North America.
  Became known as the Great War for Empire.

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• The war in India ended when the French withdrew
  and left India to the British.
• The greatest battles occurred in North America.
• The French gained the support of the Indians,
  because they were traders, not settlers. They
  also had more troops on land, but not enough
  naval support.
• The British defeated the French fleets and gave
  them the advantage. They forced the French to
  make peace.
• The Treaty of Paris 1763, transferred the Canada
  and lands east of the Mississippi to England.
  The Spanish transferred Florida to British
  control.
• Britain becomes the worlds greatest colonial
  power.

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Section 4
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Colonial Empires in Latin America

• Portugal and Spain explored and settled parts of
  North America, Central America, and South America
• A new civilization arose called Latin America.
  It was a multiracial society.
• Mestizos- offspring of Europeans and Native
  Americans.
• Mulattoes- offspring of Africans and Europeans.

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• The Portuguese and Spanish profited from gold,
  silver, sugar, tobacco, diamonds, and animal
  hides.
• Native Americans either worked on estates or as
  poor marginal farmers.
• Monarchs were unable to rule effectively due to
  communication and travel difficulties.
• They sought to convert the Native Americans to
  Christianity. They hoped to teach them trades
  and encouraged them to grow crops.

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Britain and British North America

• The United Kingdom of Great Britain came into
  existence in 1707 when England and Scotland
  united.
• British refers to both the English and the Scots.
• The 18th century saw the monarch and Parliament
  sharing power. Parliament gained more power as
  time went on.
• The colonies were suppose to be governed by the
  British Board of Trade, the Royal Council and the
  Parliament. But in reality, the colonies had
  legislatures that tended to act on their own.

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The American Revolution

• The British needed new revenues to cover war
  costs of the Seven Years war and to pay for the
  expenses of maintaining an army to defend the
  colonies.
• Stamp Act of 1765 was a tax paid on legal
  documents and papers. Repealed in 1766.
• The colonies organized the First Continental
  Congress and they met in Philadelphia in 1774.

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• Fighting between the colonists and the British
  began in 1775 in Lexington and Concord,
  Massachusetts.
• The Second Continental Congress met and formed
  the Continental Army naming George Washington as
  commander in chief.
• July 4, 1776, the Second Continental Congress
  approved the Declaration of Independence written
  by Thomas Jefferson.
• The French supplied arms and money to the
  colonists and even troops.

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• In 1781, the army of General Cornwallis was
  forced to surrender to American and French forces
  under Washington at Yorktown.
• The British ended the war and signed the Treaty
  of Paris in 1783. It recognized the independence
  of the American colonies and gave them control of
  the western territory from the Appalachians to
  the Mississippi River.

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The Birth of a New Nation

• After the American colonies gained their
  independence, they were more focused on their own
  interests and not the others.
• The Articles of Confederation was approved in
  1781. It did not provide for a strong
  centralized government and it lacked the power to
  deal with the nations problems. In 1787, 55
  delegates decided to scrap the Articles and write
  a new plan.

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• The delegates created a federal system which
  shared the power between the national and state
  governments.
• The national government could levy taxes, raise
  an army, regulate trade, and create a national
  currency.
• The federal government was divided into 3
  branches Executive (President), Legislative
  (Senate and House of Representatives), and the
  Judicial (Supreme and lower courts).

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• In 1789, the new Congress proposed 12 amendments
  to be added to the Constitution. 10 were
  approved by the states and called the Bill of
  Rights.
• It gave people the freedom of religion, speech,
  press, petition, and assembly, the right to bear
  arms, protection from unreasonable searches and
  arrests, guaranteed trial by jury, due process of
  law, and protection of property rights.