The Age of Enlightenment

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Chapter 18

• The Age of Enlightenment

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Chapter 18

• Section 1

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The Enlightenment

• Scientific progress convinced Europeans of the
  power of human reason. In the 1700s, other
  scientists expanded European knowledge. Joseph
  Priestley and Antoine Lavoisier for example,
  built the framework for modern chemistry. Edward
  Jenner developed a vaccine against smallpox, a
  disease whose path of death spanned the
  centuries.

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The Enlightenment

• If people used reason to find laws that governed
  the physical world, why not use reason to
  discover natural laws, or laws that governed
  human nature?
• Thus, the Scientific Revolution led to another
  revolution in thinking, which came to be known as
  the Enlightenment (Age of Reason)
• Through the use of reason, people and governments
  could solve social, political, and economic
  problems.

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Views of the Social Contract

• Thomas Hobbes set out his ideas in a work titled
  Leviathan.(1651) In it, he argued that people
  were naturally cruel, greedy, and selfish. If not
  strictly controlled, they would fight, rob, and
  oppress one another. Life in the state of
  naturewithout laws or other controlwould be
  solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short. 

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Views of the Social Contract

• To escape that brutish life, said Hobbes,
  people entered into a social contract, an
  agreement by which they gave up the state of
  nature for an organized society. Hobbes believed
  that only a powerful government could ensure an
  orderly society. For him, such a government was
  an absolute monarchy, which could impose order
  and compel obedience.

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Views of the Social Contract

• John Locke had a more optimistic view of human
  nature. People were basically reasonable and
  moral, he said. Further, they had certain natural
  rights, or rights that belonged to all humans
  from birth. These included the rights to life,
  liberty, and property. 

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Views of the Social Contract

• In Two Treatises of Government, Locke argued his
  social contract that people formed governments to
  protect their natural rights. The best kind of
  government, he said, had limited power and was
  accepted by all citizens (constitutional
  monarchy). Thus, unlike Hobbes, Locke rejected
  absolute monarchy. 
• Locke then set out a radical idea. A government,
  he said, has an obligation to the people it
  governs. If a government fails its obligations or
  violates people's natural rights, the people have
  the right to overthrow that government

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Locke Continued

• Another of Lockes works is Essay Concerning
  Human Understanding
• Advanced the theory of tabula rasa, by which
  Locke believed that at birth, every human beings
  mind is a blank page and all knowledge comes from
  experience

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Views of the Social Contract

• In 1748, Baron de Montesquieu published The
  Spirit of the Laws. In it, he discussed
  governments throughout history and wrote
  admiringly about Britain's limited monarchy.
• Montesquieu felt that the British had protected
  themselves against tyranny by dividing the
  various functions and powers of government among
  three separate branches the legislative,
  executive, and judicial.

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Montesquieu

• Still, he felt that the separation of powers was
  the best way to protect liberty. Montesquieu also
  felt that each branch of government should be
  able to serve as a check on the other two, an
  idea that we call checks and balances.

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Views of the Social Contract
Thomas Hobbs JOHN LOCKE BARON de MONTESQUIEU
People are naturally cruel, greedy, and selfish. People entered into a social contract, in order to live in an organized society. Only an absolute monarchy can ensure an orderly society. People are basically reasonable and moral. People have certain natural rights. A government has a duty to the people it governs. If a government fails, the people have the right to overthrow it In order to have liberty, it is necessary that government be set up so that one man need not be afraid of another. The separation of powers is the best way to protect liberty. Each branch of government should serve as a check on the others.
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Philosophes

• Thinkers called philosophes believed that the use
  of reason could lead to reforms of government,
  law, and society.
• Advanced proposals for the improvement of the
  human condition and the reform of society

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Voltaire

• François-Marie Arouet, who took the name
  Voltaire. My trade, said Voltaire, is to say
  what I think,
• He battled inequality, injustice, and
  superstition. He detested the slave trade and
  deplored religious prejudice.

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Voltaire

• Candide satirical work- critical of religious
  persecution, war superstition
• Best type of government was an enlightened despot
  an absolute monarch who was willing to use his
  authority to promote reform
• Strong believer in freedom of speech
• I do not agree with a word you say but I will
  defend to the death your right to say it

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Voltaire

• An advocate of Deism the religious belief that
  God had created the universe and set it in motion
  to operate according to natural laws but no
  longer intervened in His creation
• Deist believed in life after death
• God would reward and punish according to their
  moral conduct during their life
• Rejected fundamental doctrines of Christianity

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Denis Diderot

• Created a 28 volume Encyclopedia emphasis on
  how to improve the lives of humans through
  practical technology
• Diderot's Encyclopedia included articles by
  leading thinkers of the day, including
  Montesquieu and Voltaire.
• Banned by the Roman Catholic Church and
  criticized by most states

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Jean-Jacques Rousseau

• The most controversial philosophe, Jean-Jacques
  Rousseau
• Rousseau believed that people in their natural
  state (noble savage) were basically good. This
  natural innocence, he felt, was corrupted by the
  evils of society, especially the unequal
  distribution of property.

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Jean-Jacques Rousseau

• The Social Contract - Man is born free and
  everywhere he is in chains
• He believed that some controls were necessary,
  but that they should be minimal. Additionally,
  these controls should be imposed only by
  governments that had been freely elected. the
  concept of the will of the majority (general
  will)
• Believed that an aristocracy would be best type
  of government to rule people (ideal would be
  direct democracy)
• Also wrote work called Emile, study on natural
  educationlearn by direct experience

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Women and the Philosophes

• Women did have natural rights, said the
  philosophes. But unlike the natural rights of
  men, these rights were limited to the areas of
  home and family. 
• By the mid-1700s, a small but growing number of
  women protested this view. They questioned the
  notion that women were by nature inferior to men
  and that men's domination of women was therefore
  part of nature's plan.

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Mary Wollstonecraft

• Mary Wollstonecraft in Britain argued that women
  were being excluded from the social contract
  itself. Their arguments, however, were ridiculed
  and often sharply condemned.
• A Vindication of the Rights of Women educate
  girls just like boys then can they get equality
• Right to vote and hold office

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The Philosophes and Society
Voltaire Rousseau Mary Wollstonecraft
Defended the principle of freedom of speech. Used wit to expose abuses and corruption. Opposed the slave trade and religious prejudice. If God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent Him. Believed that people were basically good. Argued that government controls should be minimal and should only be imposed by a freely elected government. Felt the good of the community should be placed above individual interests. Argued that a woman should be able to decide what is in her own interest and should not be completely dependent on her husband. Called for equal education for girls and boys.
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Enlightenment and Law

• Cesare Beccaria wrote On Crimes and Punishment
• Called for complete overhaul in area of
  jurisprudence (law)accused should have certain
  basic rights
• No torture to gain admissions of guilt
• No capital punishmentrehabilitation of criminals
• Punishment should be swiftpunishment should
  focus on rehabilitation of the criminal

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New Economic theory

• Thinkers called physiocrats focused on economic
  reforms. Like the philosophes, physiocrats
  looked for natural laws to define a rational
  economic system.
• Physiocrats rejected mercantilism in favor of a
  policy called laissez faire
• Laissez faire means allowing businesses to run
  with little or no government interference.

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Economics

• Support the idea of free trade (free market)flow
  of commerce without government interference (no
  tariffs)

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Adam Smith Leading Physiocrat

• In The Wealth of Nations, Adam Smith argued that
  the free market should be allowed to regulate
  business activity. Smith supported laissez
  faire, but also believed that a government had a
  duty to protect society, administer justice, and
  provide public works.
• Law of supply and demand, law of self-interest
  and law of competition

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Adam Smith

• A nations wealth was based on its production of
  goods by its farmers, artisans, and factory
  workers

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Chapter 18

• Section 2

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Spread of the Enlightenment

• Ideas spread quickly through the many levels of
  society
• The educated and upper- class quickly gobbled up
  the pamphlets other literature printed
• The middle-class men discussed the new ideas in
  coffee-houses in major cities

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Spread of the Enlightenment

• Government and church officials tried to protect
  the old order. To defend against the attacks of
  the Enlightenment, they used censorship, the
  restricting of access to ideas and information.
  They banned and burned books and imprisoned
  writers.

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Spread of the Enlightenment

• Salons were informal social gatherings where
  writers, artists, philosophes, and others
  exchanged ideas.
• Originated in Paris under the direction of
  wealthy noblewomen
• Became important in spreading the ideas of the
  Enlightenment

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Enlightened Despots

• Frederick the Great - he saw himself as the
  first servant of the state, with a duty to work
  for the common good.
• he had swamps drained and forced peasants to grow
  new crops such as the potato.
• He had seed and tools distributed to peasants who
  had suffered in Prussia's wars.
• Frederick also tolerated religious differences,
  welcoming victims of religious persecution. In
  my kingdom, he said, everyone can go to heaven
  in his own fashion. 

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Enlightened Despots

• Catherine the Great - read the works of the
  philosophes and exchanged letters with Voltaire
  and Diderot .
• She granted nobles a charter of rights and
  criticized the institution of serfdom.

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Enlightened Despots

• Joseph II of Austria - Joseph traveled in
  disguise among his subjects to learn of their
  problems.
• he granted toleration to Protestants and Jews in
  his Catholic empire.
• He ended censorship and attempted to bring the
  Catholic Church under royal control.
• sold the property of many monasteries and
  convents and used the proceeds to build hospitals
• Joseph even abolished serfdom.

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Arts Literature

• Art Baroque - Baroque paintings were huge,
  colorful, and full of excitement. They glorified
  historic battles or the lives of saints. Such
  works matched the grandeur of European courts.
• Portrait painters showed noble subjects in
  charming rural settings, surrounded by happy
  servants and pets
• Rococo - Unlike the heavy splendor of the
  baroque, rococo art was personal, elegant, and
  charming. Furniture and tapestries featured
  delicate shells and flowers.

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Music

• Johann Sebastian Bach - wrote complex and
  beautiful religious works for organ and choirs.

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Music

• George Fredrick Handel noted for his operas
• most celebrated work, the Messiah, combines
  instruments and voices. Today, it is a standard
  at Christmas and Easter concerts.

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Music

• Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart Child prodigy
• Works include operas, symphonies, and moving
  religious music
• Famous works include The Magic Flute The
  Marriage of Figaro

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Literature

• Daniel Defoe wrote Robinson Crusoe, an exciting
  tale about a sailor shipwrecked on a tropical
  island.
• In Pamela, Samuel Richardson used a series of
  letters to tell a story about a servant girl.
  This technique was adopted by other authors of
  the period
• Jonathan Swift wrote Gullivers Travels a
  political social satire

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Chapter 18

• Section 3

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England As A World Power

• Location placed England in a position to control
  trade during the Renaissance. English merchants
  sent ships across the world's oceans and planted
  outposts in the West Indies, North America, and
  India. From these tiny settlements, England would
  build a global empire.

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England As A World Power

• In the 1700s, Britain was usually on the winning
  side in European conflicts. Treaty of Utrecht,
  France gave Britain Nova Scotia and Newfoundland
  in North America. In 1763, the Treaty of Paris
  ending the French and Indian War and the Seven
  Years' War brought Britain all of French Canada.
  The British East India Company also pushed the
  French out of India

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England As A World Power

• England had developed a powerful navy, which
  could protect its growing empire and trade.
• England offered a more favorable climate to
  business and commerce than did its European
  rivals.
• The union of England and Scotland brought
  economic advantages to both lands.

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Growth of Constitutional Government In England

• In the century following the Glorious
  Revolution, three new political institutions
  arose in Britain
• Political parties emerged in England in the late
  1600s. The first political parties, the Tories
  and the Whigs, represented small exclusive groups
  of wealthy men.
• The cabinet system was a group of advisers to
  the prime minister. They were called the cabinet
  because they met in a small room. Under George I
  (1st Hanover king) and his German-born son George
  II, a handful of parliamentary advisers set
  policy.

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Growth of Constitutional Government In England

• The Prime Minister was the leader of the
  majority party in Parliament and in time the
  chief official of the British government. Heading
  the cabinet was the prime minister
• Robert Walpole Prime Minister from 1721 to 1742
  was the first
• The appearance of these institutions was part of
  the evolution of Britains constitutional
  government, that is a government whose power is
  defined and limited by law.

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George III

• George III came to power anxious to reassert
  royal power. He wanted to end Whig domination,
  choose his own ministers, dissolve the cabinet
  system, and make Parliament follow his will.

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George III

• Toward these ends, he
• Gave parliamentary seats to his friends and
  supporters.
• Tried to force English colonists in North
  America to pay the costs of their own defense

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George III

• In 1775, Georges policies in North America
  triggered the American Revolution, which ended in
  a loss for Britain. Britain's loss of its
  American colonies discredited the king.
  Increasingly, too, he suffered from bouts of
  mental illness. In the crisis of leadership that
  followed, cabinet rule was restored in 1788.

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Chapter 18

• Section 4

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The American Colonies

• By the mid 1700s, the colonies were home to
  diverse religious and ethnic groups. The
  colonists felt entitled to the rights of English
  citizens, and their colonial assemblies exercised
  much control over local affairs.
• the colonists shared common values, respect for
  individual enterprise, and an increasing sense of
  their own identity separate from that of Britain.
  
• Colonies served as trade links between Britain
  and North America, the West Indies, and Africa

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The American Revolution

• After 1763, relations between Britain and the 13
  colonies grew strained.
• George III wanted the colonists to help pay for
  the Seven Years War and troops still stationed
  along the frontier.
• No taxation without representation.
• The colonists protested that since they had no
  representation in Parliament, the British had no
  right to tax them.

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The American Revolution

• March 1770, British soldiers in Boston opened
  fire on a crowd that was pelting them with stones
  and snowballs. Colonists called the death of five
  protesters the Boston Massacre.
• In December 1773, a handful of colonists hurled
  a cargo of recently arrived British tea into the
  harbor to protest the Tea Act - a tax on tea. The
  incident became known as the Boston Tea Party.
• Stamp Act caused boycotts of British goods by
  colonists

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The American Revolution

• September 1774 the First Continental Congress
  met to protest the treatment of Boston after the
  tea party
• April 1775 Battle of Lexington and Concord the
  opening battle of the American Revolution
• May 1775 the Second Continental Congress meet
• Made George Washington commander of the
  Continental Army

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The American Revolution

• July 1776 Thomas Jefferson writes the
  Declaration of Independence
• The Declaration claimed that people had the
  right to alter or to abolish unjust
  governmentsa right to revolt.
• Because the king had trampled colonists' natural
  rights, he argued, the colonists had the right to
  rebel and set up a new government that would
  protect them.
• Clearly reflecting the ideas of Locke the
  Enlightenment

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The American Revolution

• British had certain advantages
• Professional military
• Not all Americans supported independence
  (Loyalists)
• Control of major cities
• Americans had a few advantages
• Fighting for home family
• Used Indian fighting tactics
• British military leadership mediocre
• Americans received help from France
• British supply lines were long

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The American Revolution

• October 1777 Battle of Saratoga American army
  defeats a large well trained British army
  (turning point)
• French signed an alliance to aid the Americans

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The American Revolution

• October 1781 the American army under George
  Washington defeats a British army under
  Cornwallis at Yorktown
• Last major battle of the revolution

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The American Revolution

• The Treaty of Paris 1783
• America independent
• Gets all the land to the Mississippi River

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Early U.S. Government

• The national government set up by a document
  that Americans called the Articles of
  Confederation was too weak to rule the new United
  States effectively. (Inability to collect taxes)
• To address this problem, the nation's leaders
  gathered once more in Philadelphia. During 1787,
  they met in secret to hammer out the Constitution
  of the United States.

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The Constitution of the United States

• The new constitution reflected the Enlightenment
  ideas of Locke, Montesquieu, and Rousseau.

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The Constitution of the United States

• The framers of the Constitution saw government
  in terms of a social contract. They provided for
  an elective legislature and an elected president.
  
• The Constitution created a federal republic
  (federal system), with power divided between the
  federal government and the states.
• The federal government was separated among the
  legislative, executive, and judicial branches.
  Each branch was provided with checks and balances
  on the other branches.

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The Constitution of the United States

• The Bill of Rights, the first 10 amendments to
  the Constitution, recognized that people had
  basic rights that the government must protect.