The Cold War Scaled Down

1
The Cold WarScaled Down

• 1945-1991

2
Cold War

• a bitter indirect conflict between the USSR the
  U.S. that lasted for 4 decades after the end of
  WWII.
•  

3
The History Behind it

• Russian Revolution of 1917 U.S. says will not
  recognize USSR as government. Does not recognize
  them as the government until 1933.
• Non-aggression pact with Hitler then they fight
  on our side
• USSR blamed U.S. for delay of western front
• Atomic bomb project (U.S. kept USSR in dark but
  told G.B.)

4
Different Visions or paths

• U.S. hopes after WWII share democratic ideas with
  the world. Liberty, Equality, Representative
  government.
• Economic markets
• USSR Communism predicts through class struggle
  the world will eventually triumph
• USSR Totalitarian Dictatorship central
  government rules by terror and his complete
  control over peoples lives

5
Different Visions or paths

• Dispute over Poland- USSR says they must have
  biggest influence on Poland- Satellite Nations
  Soviet dominated countries, Poland, Romania,
  Bulgaria
• Iron curtain now dropped divided Europe
  Capitalist West --- Communist East this curtain
  must not be allowed to close around more nations
  (PIGS STORY 4 walls food) (CUBA story of schools
  prayer candy story and plant story God and Cuba)

6
Tensions Increase

• League of Nations has failed
• 1945 The United Nations (UN) formed U.S.
  supports this time. 50 nations agree to join
  pledge to settle their different peacefully, try
  end wars that do start
• Containment U.S. policy goal to contain the
  spread of communism in the World. Stop spread of
  We would apply this.

7
Tensions Increase

• 1947 Greece and Turkey in bad shape economically
  G.B. had been supplying economic and military aid
  they can no longer---Truman afraid they will fall
  to the communist----U.S. gives Greece Turkey
  400million in aid
• Truman Doctrine cold war policy pledging U.S.
  support to all free people resisting communism
• 1947 Marshall Plan plan to rebuild Europe
  Economically so it can withstand the threat of
  communism puts 13 billion dollars in Europe over
  next 4 years--- benefit to U.S. give strong trade
  partners----Biggest aid package 3.1 billion Great
  Britain----32 million Iceland

8
Tensions Increase

• Yalta Conference During war GB, US, France,
  USSR agree to occupy Germany after war is
  over---divided into East West Germany
• 1948 Berlin Airlift Stalin tries to force
  western allies out of Berlin. Closes roads and
  railroads West response around the clock airlift
  over 1 year--- USSR finally lifts blockade----
  hostility grows---- lasted 10 months
• NATO North Atlantic Treaty organization
  (collective security)m12 nations in this
  alliance--- most important U.S.--- attack on one
  is an attack on all---- U.S now involved in
  European affairs (USSR responds with Warsaw Pact)

9
Worry in Asia

• 1949 Mao Zedong communist party come to power
  in China--- spread of communism in Asia?
• 1949 atomic explosion takes place in USSR now we
  are not alone ARMS RACE
• U.S. Military budget increased another
  containment measure an arms race.
• During 1950s U.S. will continue containment Some
  want to liberate satellite nations (countries
  controlled politically economically by USSR)

10
Examples of Containment leading to war

• Korean War Japan had controlled Korea for
  several years. Japan will have to give up Korea _at_
  the end of the war. USSR accepts surrender in
  North above 38th parallel---USA accepts surrender
  below 38th South
• Both North and South Korea want to be unified
• 1950 North Korea makes moves across 38th
  parallel UN declares North Korea aggressor---UN
  must restore peace
• Truman did not ask Congress to Declare War

11
Examples of Containment leading to war

• UN troops lead by Douglas MacArthur push back
  North Korean troops back across 38th nearly to
  China---want to unify on South Korean
  terms---China says stop
• China enters forces UN troops back to South
  MacArthur wants to use nuclear weapons , Truman
  no, fires MacArthur
• War finally ends 1953 actually truce signed Korea
  still divided--- over 50,000 Americans die

12
Examples of Containment leading to war

• Americans unsure about this war this war was not
  very popular people do question it---1950
  PRESIDENT SAID FIGHT o.k.
• 54,000 Americans die, 100,000 casualties, 2
  million Koreans 422,000 Chinese killed
• Communism contained Korea same
• Military build up continues

13
Assignment

• Students write essay on containment---evaluate
  was it a success in Korea. Smart policy? Why?
  Middle East?

14
Red Scare Part II

• Truman administration worries about communism
  entering the U.S.
• Communist party grew during depression
• 1946 spy rings exposed
• EST. Fed employee Loyalty Program--- FBI checks
  files of suspicious employees--- several 1000
  employees dismissed --- hurts many reputations
• HVAC---established by congress to investigate
  Hollywood others 500 black listed

15
Spies among us

• Alger Hiss high ranking government official
  accused of being a communist spy 1930s (by a
  former communist) espionage not proved goes to
  jail for perjury
• Most people believe there is a real communist
  threat Proof knows intimate details about Hiss
  life Hiss had given old car away 5yrs for perjury

16
Spies among us

• The Rosenbergs accused of being Soviet spies
  refused to give any information to the
  government--- executed in 1953 (make example)
  pled the 5th when asked if communist--- 1st
  civilians executed for espionage in the U.S.
  (electric chair)

17
Spies among us

• McCarthyism background Senator Joseph McCarthy
  republican senator from Wisconsin (worst senator
  in senate at this time) speaking in West Virginia
  at a women s club (1950) claims he can point out
  2005 card carrying communist--- working for
  government
• Why did people believe him?
• Lied about war service tail gunner Joe (really
  a secretary)
• He was an alcoholic (brief case of bourbon)
• Carried a brief case full of so called documents
  against the communist

18
Spies among us

• Cause scare
• Join communist party in Texas 20yrs in jail
• Fluoridation in water? Robin Hood banned
• Accused the U.S. Army of harboring communist
• They say prove it
• McCarty takes them to trial
• News catches him yelling, belching, picking his
  nose etc
• Only evidence a dentist who wouldnt sign a
  pledge of dedication to the US govt.
• McCarthy lost trial

19
Spies among us

• Never uncovered a single communist
• McCarthyism definition (witch hunt) 1950 Brave
  patriotic stand against communism
• Today
• A smear campaign of groundless accusations from
  which the accused could not escape only
  confessions accepted people blacklisted accused
  go to trial

20
Truman Years

• Economy Postwar economy one of the greatest
  periods of expansion in history---- computers are
  put into use by factories business--- TV makes
  it big---- movement to the suburbs
•  
• Truman 1 job after WWII get soldiers home no
  boats no votes by 46 most soldiers are home
• Truman 2 consumer goods had been limited during
  the war (greatest challenge keep inflation in
  check) war is over consumers want goods have
  money to spend
• Huge demand inflation soars 25
• )

21
Truman Years

• Wages will not keep up, people not enjoying the
  fruits of sacrifice
• 1946 4.6 million workers on strike, more than any
  time in history, many major industries impacted
  (Truman wants to draft striking RR workers)
• Truman afraid wage increase will drive prices
  even higher
• Taft-Hartley passed by Congress in 1947 If
  strike effects National interest, President can
  order them back to work (80 day cool off) govt.
  will conduct study (Truman did not support

22
Truman Years

• Trumans Fair Deal 21 point extension of FDRs
  New Deal will promote
• Employment
• More unemployment compensation
• Higher minimum wage
• National Health Insurance
• Control Atomic energy

23
Truman Years

• Conservatives (Democrats and Republicans) oppose
  block most Fair Deal Legislation
• Most Americans wear about expanding
• Fair Deal Legislation
• Did extended Social Security to 10 million more
  people
• Raised minimum wage 40cents to 75 cents
• Many people see Truman as a bungling Bureaucrat
• To err is Truman

24
Truman Years

• Midterm elections Republicans win majorities in
  both
• 46-48 Republicans focus on
• Decrease taxes
• Reduce size and power of federal government
• Block Trumans liberal goals

25
Truman Years

• Truman also hurt by stance he takes on Civil
  Rights
• He supported Civil Rights hoped for
• Gain Federal support for anti-lynching law
• Abolish the poll tax
• Create a board to prevent discrimination
• Congress Refused All
• 1948 Truman did ban discrimination in hiring of
  Federal employees
• Ordered end to segregation in Armed forces

26
Things To Remember

• Germany, and most specifically Berlin is divided
  after WWII
• The Marshal Plan rebuilds Germany and Japan after
  the war
• Communist are bad-The Soviet Union and
  China-(boo)
• Korea is cold in the winter
• Harry S. Truman (HST) is still the best President
  ever!

27
The Berlin Airlift

• The Berlin Blockade was one of the first major
  international crises of the Cold War.
• During the multinational occupation of post-World
  War II Germany, the Soviet Union blocked the
  three Western powers' railroad and street access
  to the western sectors of Berlin that they had
  been controlling.
• Their aim was to force the western powers to
  allow the Soviet controlled regions to start
  supplying Berlin with food and fuel, thereby
  giving them nominal control over the entire city.

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• In response, the Western Allies formed the Berlin
  Airlift to supply the city over pre-arranged air
  corridors.
• The effort was initially viewed with skepticism
  even in the countries mounting the attempt, as
  this sort of logistical effort had never been
  mounted before.
• The airlift to supply the German 6th Army at
  Stalingrad required 300 tons per day and rarely
  came even close to delivering this the Berlin
  effort would require at least 5,000 tons a day,
  well over ten times as much.
• In spite of this, by the spring of 1949 the
  effort was clearly succeeding, and by April the
  airlift was delivering more cargo than had
  previously flowed into the city via rail.

29
Air Corridors To Berlin
30
Operation Little Vittles

• Gail Halvorsen, one of the many Airlift pilots,
  decided to use his off time to fly into Berlin
  and make movies with his handheld camera.
• As a goodwill gesture, he handed out his only two
  sticks of Wrigley's Doublemint Gum, and promised
  that if they did not fight over them, the next
  time he returned he would drop off more.
• Before he left them, a child asked him how they
  would know it was him flying over, and he
  replied, "I'll wiggle my wings."
• The very next day, on approach to Berlin, he
  rocked the aircraft and dropped some chocolate
  bars attached to a handkerchief parachute to the
  children waiting below.

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• Every day after that the number of children would
  increase and he made several more drops.
• Soon there was a stack of mail in Base Ops
  addressed to "Uncle Wiggly Wings", "The Chocolate
  Uncle" and "The Chocolate Flier".
• His commanding officer was upset when the story
  appeared in the news, but when Tunner heard about
  it he approved of the gesture and immediately
  expanded it into "Operation Little Vittles".
• Soon the major candy companies joined in as well.
  In the end, over three tons of candy were dropped
  on Berlin, and the "operation" became a major
  propaganda success.
• The candy-dropping aircraft were quickly
  christened "raisin bombers" by the German
  children.

32
The Truman Doctrine

• The Truman Doctrine is a proclamation by Harry S.
  Truman on March 12, 1947.
• It stated that the U.S. would support the Kingdom
  of Greece and Turkey economically and militarily
  to prevent their falling under Soviet control.
• Truman called upon the U.S. to "support free
  peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation
  by armed minorities or by outside pressures,"
  which generalized his hopes for Greece and Turkey
  into a doctrine applicable throughout the world.
• The Soviet Union was clearly at the heart of
  Truman's thoughts, but the nation was never
  directly mentioned in his speech.

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• Truman was attempting to solve Eastern Europe's
  instability while making sure the spread of
  communism would not affect nations like Greece
  and Turkey.
• The Truman Doctrine represented the hard side of
  containment policy, while the Marshall Plan
  constituted the soft side.

34
The Forgotten War

• The war starts, as you read, in June of 1950 when
  the North Koreans invade South Korea
• It ends on June 27, 1951 when a cease fire is
  signed and the 38th Parallel is established as
  the border
• The Korean Conflict (technically) is still going
  on

35
MASH

• The MASH unit was conceived by Michael E. DeBakey
  as the "mobile auxiliary surgical hospital".
• It was an alternative to the system of portable
  surgical hospitals, field hospitals, and general
  hospitals used during World War II.
• It was designed to get experienced personnel
  closer to the front, so that the wounded could be
  treated sooner and with greater success.
• Casualties were first treated at the point of
  injury through buddy aid, then routed through for
  emergency stabilizing surgery, and finally routed
  to the MASH for the most extensive treatment.
• This proved to be highly successful it was noted
  that during the Korean War, a seriously wounded
  soldier that made it to a MASH unit alive had a
  97 chance of survival once he received treatment

36
Mac In Korea

• MacArthur, as US theater commander, became
  commander of the UN forces in South Asia.
• In September, despite lingering concerns from
  superiors, MacArthur's army and marine troops
  made a daring and successful combined amphibious
  landing at Incheon, deep behind North Korean
  lines.
• Launched with naval and close air support, the
  daring landing outflanked the North Koreans,
  forcing them to retreat northward in disarray.
• UN forces pursued the North Korean forces,
  eventually approaching the Yalu River border with
  China.
• MacArthur boasted "The war is over. The Chinese
  are not coming... The Third Division will be back
  in Fort Benning for Christmas dinner."

37

• In April 1951, MacArthur's habitual disregard of
  his superiors led to a crisis.
• He also sent an ultimatum to the Chinese Army
  which destroyed HSTs cease-fire efforts.
• This was seen by HST as a violation of the
  American constitutional principle that military
  commanders are subordinate to civilian
  leadership, and usurpation of the President's
  authority to make foreign policy.
• By this time HST decided MacArthur was
  insubordinate, and relieved him of command on
  April 11, 1951, leading to a storm of
  controversy.
• HST received criticism from WWII vets as well as
  his own mother in law

38
Back To HST

• During this time HST is also going to enact what
  he calls the Fair Deal
• This was designed to strengthen New Deal
  legislation and create new programs

39

• This legislation never made it through the Do
  Nothing Congress and Truman leaves the
  Presidency with approval ratings in the 20 to 30
  range

40
1948 Election

• Truman decides to run seems like a bad idea he
  was having problems with his own party
• Democrats Split--- Truman will be democratic
  candidate
• Southern Democrats form a party called
  Dixiecrats choose Strom Thurmond of South
  Carolina as their candidate----They opposed
  segregation
• Progressive Party liberal democrats choose Henry
  Wallace 1 time VP of FDR maybe he could carry out
  FDRs plans
• Split seemed to spell doom for Truman

41
1948 Election

• Republicans nominated Thomas E. Dewey
• Truman ran a whistle stop campaign pulls
  biggest upset in historyTruman tactic was to
  attack the Republican Do Nothing Congress
• Democrats also gain control of Congress
• Republicans were frustrated push for 22nd
  amendment that limits a president to 2 terms

42
1952 Election

• Truman Out
• Democrat Adalai Stevenson
• Republican Dwight Eisenhower former Military
  General
• I Like IKE
• K1C2 Formula for victory
• End Korean War with honor
• Tough approach to communism
• Running mate R. Nixon promised to hammer govt.
  corruption

43
1952 Election

• Eisenhower was a very popular candidate but his
  campaign ran into a snag
• Richard Nixon V.P. Candidate accused of having a
  special fund set up by rich republican supporters
• Nixon Response The Checkers Speech
• Denied any wrong doing
• Gave personal account of finance
• wife wears a respectable republican cloth coat
• Had received a gift he would not return black and
  white cocker spaniel little girl named Checkers
• Nixon stays V.P. IKE becomes president 55 of
  popular vote will serve 2 terms

44
Eisenhower as President

• Brought with him approach called
• Modern Republicanism conservative when it comes
  to money but liberal when it comes to human
  beings
• Favored big business
• Cut government spending, but did not try to
  reverse the New Deal (Social Security extended
  minimum wage increased)
• Economy Slumped

45
Things To Remember

• Soviets dont like us at the point
• Nukes are powerful
• General Dwight David Eisenhower (Ike) is the
  President after Truman and though he is good hes
  no Harry Truman
• We would also like to Welcome the Central
  Intelligence Agency into the picture

46
Building An Empire

• As we talked about yesterday, after WWII the
  world broke into two different groups- us (The
  Free World) and them (The Communist World)

• Each set out to collect colonies and out posts to
  expand their ideals
• Whenever one side would gain a colony, the other
  would struggle to create a colony of their own
  near it to keep the other from gaining the upper
  hand

47
U.S v.s Them
48
Building A Nuclear Force

• In the back of the Soviet and American was the
  idea of developing a colony that was close enough
  to strike their enemy with a nuke

• In 1952 the U.S tested its first Hydrogen Bomb
• In 1953 the Soviet tested their first H-Bomb
• The Hydrogen Bomb was even more effective and
  deadly than the atom bomb, but hey when youre
  wiping whole towns off the map- whats a few more
  blocks

49
Zero Sum

• This arms race, and the Cold War, are often
  called an exercise in Brinkmenship
• Brinkmenship is the idea that both sides have
  roughly the same weapons and try to gain a upper
  hand without going over the brink

• However, many opponents (to this day) say that
  building a large nuclear arsenal is a zero sum
  exercise because in the end no one would win
• Your text calls this mutually assured destruction

50
Ike Steps In

• Ike opposed spending billions of dollars on
  regular forces (armies, navies, and air forces-oh
  my) and favored stockpiling nuclear weapons
• His approach did save money
• In 1953 the defense budget was 50.5 billion
• In 1955 it was only 35.8

51
The Eisenhower Doctrine

• Ike (in response to then recent events in Egypt)
  announced that the U.S would use force in any
  Middle Eastern country that was threatened by
  Communism
• He would use this to justify sending troops into
  Lebanon

52
Who Called The CIA?

• The Central Intelligence Agency was working
  within then Soviet Union as well as countries
  that would potentially fall to the Communist
• After Stalin dies in 1953, the U.S saw an
  opportunity to stave off Communist Growth
• In places like Poland, Hungary, and
  Czechoslovakia the CIA helped fund and support
  rebellions against the Soviets

53
The CIA In Iran Guatemala

• Ike approves the CIA to use covert measures to
  form a coup that over throws the un-friendly
  governments in Iran in 1953 and Guatemala in 1954
• Both were successful but create long standing
  hatred of the U.S in both countries

• Many historians debate why the CIA was involved
  with a coup in what seemed to be a harmless
  government in Guatemala, but upon further
  inspection, you see that the United Fruit Company
  had lobbied the CIA to over-throw the government
  that purposed Communist ideals

54
Final Questions

• What methods did the U.S use in its global
  struggle against the Soviet Union
• How was the Eisenhower Doctrine similar to the
  Truman Doctrine?

55
Cold War Continued

• 1957 USSR launched Sputnik 1st artificial
  satellite to orbit earth, weighed about 185lbs
  little bigger than basketball
• Sputnik II launched a few months after Sputnik
  1---bigger---carried a dog
• These Satellites Caused
• Fear (Fall Out Shelters)
• Education failing/ science math (National
  Defense Education Act)
• NASA (National Aeronautics Space
  Administration) caused Space Race

56
The Culture Of The 1950s

• For Bell Work Get out a piece of paper and write
  down as many things about the 1950s American
  culture you can think of
• Items you might know can include musicians or
  musical groups, TV shows, famous people, toys,
  games, ideas, events,

57
Things To Remember

• Were in the same time frame as we have been
• Cars were made of metal
• Paint had lead in it
• This is, mostly likely, the decade many of your
  parents were born in
• Johnny Cash becomes famous as well as this guy
  named Elvis-who names their kid Elvis?

58
Role of Men and Women (50s style)

• Men
• go to school, find a job, support wife family
• For most part they continue to make most
  important political, economic, social
  decisions
• Women
• Take care of home not unusual to be married at
  age 16,attend school functions, raise children

59
Role of Men and Women (50s style)

• 1950 24 married women work outside the home it
  did increase 31 by 1960
• 1963 Betty Friedan published The Feminine
  Mystique declared women were frustrated had a
  difficult time choosing alternative roles.

60
The G.I Bill

• As World War Two came to a close, they Federal
  government had a large problem
• What would it do with all the men that had either
  joined or were drafted into the military

• In an attempt to combat the typical post-war
  economic depression, with high jobless rates, the
  federal government decided to enact the laws that
  became known as the Montgomery G.I. Bills or G.I
  Bill for short

61

• Under the G.I Bill returning veterans were given
  money and encouraged to enter college.
• It also gave money to those who could not find a
  job
• Many veterans took this money and either entered
  or returned to college, and increased the amount
  of college degrees drastically
• Many modern historians have argued that the G.I
  Bill is one of the most significant pieces of
  legislation ever passed-
• Partially (my opinion) because it inspired many
  African Americans to enter what were then
  segregated college

62
The Baby Boom

• Another culturally significant event was the baby
  boom
• As the name suggests it was a large increase of
  babies born
• But as these babies grow up there is going to be
  an increase demand for everything in life-
  college degree, homes, job, and now health care

63
Lead Sleds

• With a growing number of families moving into
  suburban homes the need for cars also increased
  in the post war years
• The number of registered cars jumped from 26
  million in 1946 to 60 million in 1960

64
The Interstate Highway Act

• Ike saw the increased traffic on Americas roads
  to be a problem so in 1956 he had Congress pass
  the Interstate Highway Act
• These new roads allowed the average Americans the
  opportunity to travel to places like Disney World

• While this helped the American public it also had
  military benefits
• In the case of a Nuclear Attack or Russian
  Invasion the military could use the highways to
  rush forces quickly to where they were needed

65
Rock N Roll

• A form of popular music arising from and
  incorporating a variety of musical styles,
  especially rhythm and blues, country music, and
  gospel.
• Originating in the United States in the 1950s, it
  is characterized by electronically amplified
  instrumentation, a heavily accented beat, and
  relatively simple phrase structure

66
Rock N Roll In The 50s

• The United States was divided by racial problems
  during the 1950's, but many people sensed a
  spirit of equality in Rock and Roll. 
• With the rise of Rock and Roll's new popularity,
  black artists were becoming more popular with
  audiences of all colors.
•  Chuck Berry was one of the first black Rock and
  Roll performers to appeal to black and white
  audiences by combining the popular black
  Rhythm-and-Blues sound with Rock and Roll.  His
  powerful guitar playing and energetic dancing
  thrilled audiences.

67
Chuck Berry and The Duck Walk
68

• When Bill Haley's Rock Around the Clock appeared
  in 1955, America started to swing to a whole new
  sound. 
• Rock Around the Clock was used in a popular movie
  named Blackboard Jungle. 
• This movie gave Rock and Roll a huge audience and
  made Bill Haley and the Comets famous overnight.

69
Buddy Holly

• Holly is described by critic Bruce Eder as "the
  single most influential creative force in early
  rock and roll.
• His works and innovations were copied by his
  contemporaries and later musicians, notably The
  Beatles and The Rolling Stones, and exerted a
  profound influence on popular music.
• In 2004, Rolling Stone Magazine ranked Holly 13
  on their list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All
  Time.

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• Hollys career only span about a year before he,
  Richie Valens, and The Big Bopper were killed in
  a plane crash
• In a strange twist of fate a young man by the
  name of Waylon Jennings was supposed to have had
  Hollys seat on the plane that crashed
• Hollys death was the inspiration for Don
  McLeans Bye, Bye Miss American Pie

71
My Favorite Of The 1950s

• Johnny Cash was born J. R. Cash in Kingsland,
  Arkansas and raised in Dyess, Arkansas
• Cash started a band with Luther Perkins and
  Marshal Grant, and would eventually audition for
  Sam Phillips at Sun Records in Memphis, Tennessee
• Sun was famous already for having signed Elvis
  Presley, and the more popular at the time, Jerry
  Lee Lewis

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• Cash and his band the Tennessee Three would spend
  most of the 1950s touring with the likes of
  Elvis, Roy Orbison, and Jerry Lee Lewis

73
Elvis

• Elvis is by far the popular musician of all
  times, but in the 1950s he was just starting out
• On July 18, 1953, Presley went to Sun Records'
  Memphis Recording Service to record "My
  Happiness" with "That's When Your Heartaches
  Begin", supposedly a present for his mother

74

• On January 10, Presley made his first recordings
  for RCA in Nashville, Tennessee. The session
  produced "Heartbreak Hotel/I Was The One" which
  was released on January 27.
• The public reaction to "Heartbreak Hotel"
  prompted RCA to release it as a single in its own
  right (February 11). April it had hit number one
  in the U.S. charts, selling in excess of one
  million copies.

75

• After more hectic touring, Presley returned to
  The Milton Berle Show on June 5 and performed
  "Hound Dog" (without his guitar).
• Singing the song up tempo, he then began a slower
  version.
• Presley's "gyrations" created a storm of
  controversyeven eclipsing the 'communist threat'
  headlines prevalent at the time.
• The press described his performance as "vulgar"
  and "obscene".

• On March 24, 1958, he was inducted as US Army
  private 53310761 and completed basic training at
  Fort Hood, Texas on September 17, 1958, before
  being posted to Friedberg, Germany with the 3rd
  Armored Division, where his service took place
  from October 1, 1958

76
ELVIS IN THE ARMY
77
Dissent and Discontent

• Despite the relative prosperity of the 1950s
• Many felt as is the material conditions had
  improved during the 1950s but the quality of
  life had not
• These protest that start in the 1950s are going
  to be what plants the seed for the mass protests
  of the 1960s..you cant have Hippies without
  Beatniks

78
Literary Protest

• The protest would primarily come from writers
  like J.D Salinger, Sloan Wilson, Jack Kerouac
  Truman Capote, and William S. Burroughs
• Where writers like Hemmingway, Faulkner, Wolfe,
  and Fitzgerald made up the Lost Generation
  these writers become the Beat Generation

79
The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit

• The novel about the American search for purpose
  in world dominated by business.
• Tom and Betsy Rath share a struggle to find
  contentment in their hectic and material culture.
  
• In the end, it is a story of taking
  responsibility for one's own life.
• The book was largely autobiographical, drawing on
  Wilson's experiences as assistant director of the
  US national citizen commission for the public
  schools.

80
The Catcher In The Rye

• First published in the United States in 1951, the
  novel has been frequently challenged in its home
  country for its liberal use of profanity and
  portrayal of sexuality and teenage angst.
• Originally published for adults, the novel has
  become a common part of high school and college
  curricula throughout the English-speaking world
  it has also been translated into almost all of
  the world's major languages.

81

• Written in the first person, The Catcher in the
  Rye follows a young mans (Holden Caulfield)
  experiences in New York City in the days
  following his expulsion from Pencey Prep, a
  college preparatory school.
• As Holden shares his experiences, it becomes
  evident that he is talking from a mental facility
  where he is being psychoanalyzed

• Holden spends a total of two days in the city,
  characterized largely by drunkenness and
  loneliness.
• At one point he ends up at a museum, where he
  contrasts his life with the statues of Eskimos on
  display
• Holden intends to move out west, in the end he
  doesnt go
• His voice in the novel's last few pages indicates
  more perspective, yet he remains lonely and
  without definite direction

82
On The Road

• It is a largely autobiographical based on the
  road trips of Kerouac and his friends across
  mid-century America.
• It is often considered a defining work of the
  postwar Beat Generation that was inspired by
  jazz, poetry, and drug experience
• The novel was chosen by TIME Magazine as one of
  the 100 best English-language novels from 1923 to
  2005.

83
Plot

• The book begins by introducing the catalyst for
  most of the adventures of the story Dean
  Moriarty.
• The narrator, Sal Paradise, is fascinated with
  the idea of humanity, and particularly his
  eclectic group of friends, jazz, the landscapes
  of America, and women.
• The opening paragraph states that "with the
  coming of Dean Moriarty began the part of my life
  you could call my life on the road."

84

• His friend Remi Boncœur has sent an invitation to
  join him, with hints of worldwide travels aboard
  a ship.
• He sets out with fifty dollars in his pocket.
• From there he travels across the world and
  America
• Dean comes back to New York to see Sal and steal
  Sals girl, but it doesnt work so Dean returns
  to the West alone.
• Sal closes the novel sitting on a pier during
  sunset, looking west reminiscing on God, America,
  and the idea that "nobody knows whats going to
  happen to anybody besides the forlorn rags of
  growing old,"

85
Vietnam War Overview

• 1945
• Ho Chi Minh Creates Provisional Government  
  Following the surrender of Japan to Allied
  forces, Ho Chi Minh and his People's Congress
  create the National Liberation Committee of
  Vietnam to form a provisional government. Japan
  transfers all power to Ho's Vietminh.
• Ho Declares Independence of Vietnam
• British Forces Land in Saigon, Return Authority
  to French
• First American Dies in Vietnam    Lt. Col. A.
  Peter Dewey, head of American OSS mission, was
  killed by Vietminh troops while driving a jeep to
  the airport. Reports later indicated that his
  death was due to a case of mistaken identity --
  he had been mistaken for a Frenchman.

86
Vietnam War Overview

• 1954
• Eisenhower Cites "Domino Theory" Regarding
  Southeast Asia   Responding to the defeat of the
  French by the Vietminh at Dienbienphu, President
  Eisenhower outlines the Domino Theory "You have
  a row of dominoes set up. You knock over the
  first one, and what will happen to the last one
  is the certainty that it will go over very
  quickly."
• Geneva Convention Begins     Delegates from nine
  nations convene in Geneva to start negotiations
  that will lead to the end of hostilities in
  Indochina. The idea of partitioning Vietnam is
  first explored at this forum.
• Geneva Convention Agreements Announced    
  Vietminh General Ta Quang Buu and French General
  Henri Delteil sign the Agreement on the Cessation
  of Hostilities in Vietnam. As part of the
  agreement, a provisional demarcation line is
  drawn at the 17th parallel which will divide
  Vietnam until nationwide elections are held in
  1956. The United States does not accept the
  agreement, neither does the government of Bao
  Dai.

87
Vietnam War Overview

• 1960
• Vietcong Formed     Hanoi forms National
  Liberation Front for South Vietnam. Diem
  government dubs them "Vietcong."
• 1961
• Vice President Johnson Tours Saigon     During a
  tour of Asian countries, Vice President Lyndon
  Johnson visits Diem in Saigon. Johnson assures
  Diem that he is crucial to US objectives in
  Vietnam and calls him "the Churchill of Asia."
• 1962
• US Military Employs Agent Orange     US Air
  Force begins using Agent Orange -- a defoliant
  that came in metal orange containers-to expose
  roads and trails used by Vietcong forces.
• 1963
• Diem Overthrown, Murdered     With tacit
  approval of the United States, operatives within
  the South Vietnamese military overthrow Diem. He
  and his brother Nhu are shot and killed in the
  aftermath.

88
Vietnam War Overview

• 1964
• General Nguyen Khanh Seizes Power in Saigon    
  In a bloodless coup, General Nguyen Khanh seizes
  power in Saigon. South Vietnam junta leader,
  Major General Duong Van Minh, is placed under
  house arrest, but is allowed to remain as a
  figurehead chief-of-state.
• Gulf of Tonkin Incident     On August 2, three
  North Vietnamese PT boats allegedly fire
  torpedoes at the USS Maddox, a destroyer located
  in the international waters of the Tonkin Gulf,
  some thirty miles off the coast of North Vietnam.
  The attack comes after six months of covert US
  and South Vietnamese naval operations. A second,
  even more highly disputed attack, is alleged to
  have taken place on August 4.
• Debate on Gulf of Tonkin Resolution     The Gulf
  of Tonkin Resolution is approved by Congress on
  August 7 and authorizes President Lyndon Johnson
  to "take all necessary measures to repel any
  armed attack against forces of the United States
  and to prevent further aggression." The
  resolution passes unanimously in the House, and
  by a margin of 82-2 in the Senate. The Resolution
  allows Johnson to wage all out war against North
  Vietnam without ever securing a formal
  Declaration of War from Congress.

89
Vietnam War Overview

• 1965
• Operation "Rolling Thunder" Deployed   
  Sustained American bombing raids of North
  Vietnam, dubbed Operation Rolling Thunder, begin
  in February. The nearly continuous air raids
  would go on for three years.
• US Troop Levels Top 200,000
• 1966
• Veterans Stage Anti-War Rally     Veterans from
  World Wars I and II, along with veterans from the
  Korean war stage a protest rally in New York
  City. Discharge and separation papers are burned
  in protest of US involvement in Vietnam.
• CORE Cites "Burden On Minorities and Poor" in
  Vietnam    The Congress of Racial Equality
  (CORE) issues a report claiming that the US
  military draft places "a heavy discriminatory
  burden on minority groups and the poor." The
  group also calls for a withdrawal of all US
  troops from Vietnam.

90
Vietnam War Overview

• 1968
• Launch Tet Offensive      In a show of military
  might that catches the US military off guard,
  North Vietnamese and Vietcong forces sweep down
  upon several key cities and provinces in South
  Vietnam, including its capital, Saigon. Within
  days, American forces turn back the onslaught and
  recapture most areas. From a military point of
  view, Tet is a huge defeat for the Communists,
  but turns out to be a political and psychological
  victory. The US military's assessment of the war
  is questioned and the "end of tunnel" seems very
  far off.
• My Lai Massacre     On March 16, the angry and
  frustrated men of Charlie Company, 11th Brigade,
  Americal Division entered the village of My Lai.
  "This is what you've been waiting for -- search
  and destroy -- and you've got it," said their
  superior officers. A short time later the killing
  began. When news of the atrocities surfaced, it
  sent shockwaves through the US political
  establishment, the military's chain of command,
  and an already divided American public.

91
Vietnam War Overview

• 1968 Continued
• Paris Peace Talks Begin     Following a lengthy
  period of debate and discussion, North Vietnamese
  and American negotiators agree on a location and
  start date of peace talks. Talks are slated to
  begin in Paris on May 10 with W. Averell Harriman
  representing the United States, and former
  Foreign Minister Xuan Thuy heading the North
  Vietnamese delegation.
• 1969
• Nixon Begins Secret Bombing of Cambodia     In
  an effort to destroy Communist supply routes and
  base camps in Cambodia, President Nixon gives the
  go-ahead to "Operation Breakfast." The covert
  bombing of Cambodia, conducted without the
  knowledge of Congress or the American public,
  will continue for fourteen months.
• Policy of "Vietnamization" Announced   
  Secretary of Defense Melvin Laird describes a
  policy of "Vietnamization" when discussing a
  diminishing role for the US military in Vietnam.
  The objective of the policy is to shift the
  burden of defeating the Communists onto the South
  Vietnamese Army and away from the United States.

92
Vietnam War Overview

• 1969 Continued
• Ho Chi Minh Dies at Age 79
• News of My Lai Massacre Reaches US     Through
  the reporting of journalist Seymour Hersh,
  Americans read for the first time of the
  atrocities committed by Lt. William Calley and
  his troops in the village of My Lai. At the time
  the reports were made public, the Army had
  already charged Calley with the crime of murder.

93
Vietnam War Overview

• 1972
• Nixon Cuts Troop Levels by 70K     Responding to
  charges by Democratic presidential candidates
  that he is not moving fast enough to end US
  involvement in Vietnam, President Nixon orders
  troop strength reduced by seventy thousand.
• Secret Peace Talks Revealed
• 1973
• Cease-fire Signed in Paris     A cease-fire
  agreement that, in the words of Richard Nixon,
  "brings peace with honor in Vietnam and Southeast
  Asia," is signed in Paris by Henry Kissinger and
  Le Duc Tho. The agreement is to go into effect on
  January 28.
• End of Draft Announced
• Last American Troops Leave Vietnam

94
Vietnam War Overview

• 1975
• Ford Calls Vietnam War "Finished"    
  Anticipating the fall of Saigon to Communist
  forces, US President Gerald Ford, speaking in New
  Orleans, announces that as far as the US is
  concerned, the Vietnam War is "finished."
• Last Americans Evacuate as Saigon Falls to
  Communists    South Vietnamese President Duong
  Van Minh delivers an unconditional surrender to
  the Communists in the early hours of April 30.
  North Vietnamese Colonel Bui Tin accepts the
  surrender and assures Minh that, "...Only the
  Americans have been beaten. If you are patriots,
  consider this a moment of joy." As the few
  remaining Americans evacuate Saigon, the last two
  US servicemen to die in Vietnam are killed when
  their helicopter crashes.

95
Khrushchev, Eisenhower and De-Stalinization

• In 1953, changes in political leadership on both
  sides shifted the dynamic of the Cold War.71
  Dwight D. Eisenhower was inaugurated president
  that January. During the last 18 months of the
  Truman administration, the American defense
  budget had quadrupled, and Eisenhower moved to
  reduce military spending by a third while
  continuing to fight the Cold War effectively

96
Khrushchev, Eisenhower and De-Stalinization

• After the death of Joseph Stalin, Nikita
  Khrushchev became the Soviet leader following the
  deposition and execution of Lavrentiy Beria and
  the pushing aside of rivals Georgy Malenkov and
  Vyacheslav Molotov. On February 25, 1956,
  Khrushchev shocked delegates to the 20th Congress
  of the Soviet Communist Party by cataloguing and
  denouncing Stalin's crimes.106 As part of a
  campaign of de-Stalinization, he declared that
  the only way to reform and move away from
  Stalin's policies would be to acknowledge errors
  made in the past

97
Khrushchev, Eisenhower and De-Stalinization

• On November 18, 1956, while addressing Western
  ambassadors at a reception at the Polish embassy
  in Moscow, Khrushchev used his famous "Whether
  you like it or not, history is on our side. We
  will bury you" expression, shocking everyone
  present.107 He later claimed that he had not
  been talking about nuclear war, but rather about
  the historically determined victory of communism
  over capitalism.108 In 1961, Khrushchev
  declared that even if the USSR was behind the
  West, within a decade its housing shortage would
  disappear, consumer goods would be abundant, and
  within two decades, the "construction of a
  communist society" in the USSR would be completed
  "in the main"

98
Khrushchev, Eisenhower and De-Stalinization

• Eisenhower's secretary of state, John Foster
  Dulles, initiated a "New Look" for the
  containment strategy, calling for a greater
  reliance on nuclear weapons against US enemies in
  wartime.71 Dulles also enunciated the doctrine
  of "massive retaliation", threatening a severe US
  response to any Soviet aggression. Possessing
  nuclear superiority, for example, allowed
  Eisenhower to face down Soviet threats to
  intervene in the Middle East during the 1956 Suez
  Crisis.

99
Warsaw Pact and Hungarian Revolution

• While Stalin's death in 1953 slightly relaxed
  tensions, the situation in Europe remained an
  uneasy armed truce.110 The Soviets, who had
  already created a network of mutual assistance
  treaties in the Eastern Bloc by 1949,111
  established a formal alliance therein, the Warsaw
  Pact, in 1955.32
• The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 occurred shortly
  after Khrushchev arranged the removal of
  Hungary's Stalinist leader Mátyás Rákosi.112 In
  response to a popular uprising,113 the new
  regime formally disbanded the secret police,
  declared its intention to withdraw from the
  Warsaw Pact and pledged to re-establish free
  elections. The Soviet army invaded.114
  Thousands of Hungarians were arrested, imprisoned
  and deported to the Soviet Union,115 and
  approximately 200,000 Hungarians fled Hungary in
  the chaos.116 Hungarian leader Imre Nagy and
  others were executed following secret trials

100
Warsaw Pact and Hungarian Revolution

• From 1957 through 1961, Khrushchev openly and
  repeatedly threatened the West with nuclear
  annihilation. He claimed that Soviet missile
  capabilities were far superior to those of the
  United States, capable of wiping out any American
  or European city. However, Khrushchev rejected
  Stalin's belief in the inevitability of war, and
  declared his new goal was to be "peaceful
  coexistence".118 This formulation modified the
  Stalin-era Soviet stance, where international
  class struggle meant the two opposing camps were
  on an inevitable collision course where Communism
  would triumph through global war now, peace
  would allow capitalism to collapse on its
  own,119 as well as giving the Soviets time to
  boost their military capabilities,120 which
  remained for decades until Gorbachev's later "new
  thinking" envisioning peaceful coexistence as an
  end in itself rather than a form of class struggle

101
Warsaw Pact and Hungarian Revolution

• The events in Hungary produced ideological
  fractures within the Communist parties of the
  world, particularly in Western Europe, with great
  decline in membership as many in both western and
  communist countries felt disillusioned by the
  brutal Soviet response.122 The communist
  parties in the west would never recover from the
  effect the Hungarian Revolution had on their
  membership, a fact that was immediately
  recognized by some, such as the Yugoslavian
  politician Milovan Djilas who shortly after the
  revolution was crushed said that "The wound which
  the Hungarian Revolution inflicted on communism
  can never be completely healed

102
Warsaw Pact and Hungarian Revolution

• America's pronouncements concentrated on American
  strength abroad and the success of liberal
  capitalism.123 However, by the late 1960s, the
  "battle for men's minds" between two systems of
  social organization that Kennedy spoke of in 1961
  was largely over, with tensions henceforth based
  primarily on clashing geopolitical objectives
  rather than ideology

103
Berlin ultimatum and European integration

• The maximum territorial extent of countries in
  the world under Soviet influence, after the Cuban
  Revolution of 1959 and before the official
  Sino-Soviet split of 1961
• During November 1958, Khrushchev made an
  unsuccessful attempt to turn all of Berlin into
  an independent, demilitarized "free city", giving
  the United States, Great Britain, and France a
  six-month ultimatum to withdraw their troops from
  the sectors they still occupied in West Berlin,
  or he would transfer control of Western access
  rights to the East Germans. Khrushchev earlier
  explained to Mao Zedong that "Berlin is the
  testicles of the West. Every time I want to make
  the West scream, I squeeze on Berlin."125 NATO
  formally rejected the ultimatum in mid-December
  and Khrushchev withdrew it in return for a Geneva
  conference on the German question.

104
Berlin ultimatum and European integration

• More broadly, one hallmark of the 1950s was the
  beginning of European integration
• a fundamental by-product of the Cold War that
  Truman and Eisenhower promoted politically,
  economically, and militarily, but which later
  administrations viewed ambivalently, fearful that
  an independent Europe would forge a separate
  détente with the Soviet Union, which would use
  this to exacerbate Western disunity

105
Worldwide competition

• 1961 Soviet stamp commemorating Patrice Lumumba,
  prime minister of the Republic of the Congo.

• 1961 Soviet postage stamp demanding freedom for
  African nations.

106
Worldwide competition

• 1961 Soviet stamp commemorating Patrice Lumumba,
  prime minister of the Republic of the Congo.
• Nationalist movements in some countries and
  regions, notably Guatemala, Indonesia and
  Indochina were often allied with communist
  groups, or perceived in the West to be allied
  with communists.71 In this context, the United
  States and the Soviet Union increasingly competed
  for influence by proxy in the Third World as
  decolonization gained momentum in the 1950s and
  early 1960s128 additionally, the Soviets saw
  continuing losses by imperial powers as presaging
  the eventual victory of their ideology

107
Worldwide competition

• The United States made use of the Central
  Intelligence Agency (CIA) to do away with a
  string of unfriendly Third World governments and
  to support allied ones.71 In 1953, President
  Eisenhower's Central Intelligence Agency
  implemented Operation Ajax, a covert operation
  aimed at the overthrow of the Iranian prime
  minister, Mohammad Mosaddegh. The
  popularly-elected and non-aligned Mosaddegh had
  been a Middle Eastern nemesis of Britain since
  nationalizing the British-owned Anglo-Iranian Oil
  Company in 1951. Churchill told the United States
  that Mosaddegh was "increasingly turning towards
  communism" and was moving Iran towards the Soviet
  sphere.130131132133 The pro-Western shah,
  Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, assumed control as an
  autocratic monarch.134 The shah's policies
  included the banning of the communist Tudeh Party
  and general suppression of political dissent by
  SAVAK, the shah's domestic security and
  intelligence agency.

108
Worldwide competition

• In Guatemala, a CIA-backed military coup ousted
  the left-wing President Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán in
  1954.135 The post-Arbenz government, a military
  junta headed by Carlos Castillo Armas, returned
  nationalized American property, set up a National
  Committee of Defense Against Communism, and
  decreed a Preventive Penal Law Against Communism
  at the request of the United States.
• In the Republic of the Congo, newly independent
  from Belgium since June 1960, the CIA-cultivated
  President Joseph Kasa-Vubu ordered the dismissal
  of the democratically-elected Prime Minister
  Patrice Lumumba and the Lumumba cabinet in
  September Lumumba called for Kasa-Vubu's
  dismissal instead.
• In the ensuing Congo Crisis, the CIA-backed
  Colonel Mobutu quickly mobilized his forces to
  seize power through a military coup d'état

109
Worldwide competition

• In British Guiana, the leftist People's
  Progressive Party (PPP) candidate Cheddi Jagan
  won the position of chief minister in a
  colonially-administered election in 1953, but was
  quickly forced to resign from power after
  Britain's suspension of the still-dependent
  nation's constitution.138 Embarrassed by the
  landslide electoral victory of Jagan's allegedly
  Marxist party, the British imprisoned the PPP's
  leadership and maneuvered the organization into a
  divisive rupture in 1955, engineering a split
  between Jagan and his PPP colleagues.139 Jagan
  again won the colonial elections in 1957 and
  1961 despite Britain's shift to a
  reconsideration of its view of the left-wing
  Jagan as a Soviet-style communist at this time,
  the United States pressured the British to
  withhold Guyana's independence until an
  alternative to Jagan could be identified,
  supported, and brought into office

110
Worldwide competition

• Worn down by the communist guerrilla war for
  Vietnamese independence and handed a watershed
  defeat by communist Vietminh rebels at the 1954
  Battle of Ði?n Biên Ph?, the French accepted a
  negotiated abandonment of their colonial stake in
  Vietnam. Peace accords signed in Geneva left
  Vietnam divided between a pro-Soviet
  administration in North Vietnam and a pro-Western
  administration in South Vietnam at the 17th
  parallel north. Between 1954 and 1961,
  Eisenhower's United States sent economic aid and
  military advisers to strengthen South Vietnam's
  pro-Western regime against communist efforts to
  destabilize it

111
Worldwide competition

• Many emerging nations of Asia, Africa, and Latin
  America rejected the pressure to choose sides in
  the East-West competition. In 1955, at the
  Bandung Conference in Indonesia, dozens of Third
  World governments resolved to stay out of the
  Cold War.141 The consensus reached at Bandung
  culminated with the creation of the
  Belgrade-headquartered Non-Aligned Movement in
  1961.71 Meanwhile, Khrushchev broadened
  Moscow's policy to establish ties with India and
  other key neutral states. Independence movements
  in the Third World transformed the post-war order
  into a more pluralistic world of decolonized
  African and Middle Eastern nations and of rising
  nationalism in Asia and Latin America

112
Sino-Soviet split, space race, ICBMs

• Charting the progress of the Space Race in
  1957-1975.

113
Sino-Soviet split, space race, ICBMs

• The period after 1956 was marked by serious
  setbacks for the Soviet Union, most notably the
  breakdown of the Sino-Soviet alliance, beginning
  the Sino-Soviet split. Mao had defended Stalin
  when Khrushchev attacked him after his death in
  1956, and treated the new Soviet leader as a
  superficial upstart, accusing him of having lost
  his revolutionary edge

114
Sino-Soviet split, space race, ICBMs

• After this, Khrushchev made many desperate
  attempts to reconstitute the Sino-Soviet
  alliance, but Mao considered it useless and
  denied any proposal.142 The Chinese-Soviet
  animosity spilled out in an intra-communist
  propaganda war.143 Further on, the Soviets
  focused on a bitter rivalry with Mao's China for
  leadership of the global communist movement,

115
Sino-Soviet split, space race, ICBMs

• On the nuclear weapons front, the United States
  and the USSR pursued nuclear rearmament and
  developed long-range weapons with which they
  could strike the territory of the other.32 In
  August 1957, the Soviets successfully launched
  the world's first intercontinental ballistic
  missile (ICBM)145 and in October, launched the
  first Earth satellite, Sputnik.146 The launch
  of Sputnik inaugurated the Space Race. This
  culminated in the Apollo Moon landings, which
  astronaut Frank Borman later described as "just a
  battle in the Cold War.

116
Cuban Revolution and the Bay of Pigs

• In Cuba, the 26th of July Movement seized power
  in January 1959, toppling President Fulgencio
  Batista, whose unpopular regime had been denied
  arms by the Eisenhower administration.148
• Diplomatic relations between Cuba and the United
  States continued for some time after Batista's
  fall, but President Eisenhower deliberately left
  the capital to avoid meeting Cuba's young
  revolutionary leader Fidel Castro during the
  latter's trip to Washington in April, leaving
  Vice President Richard Nixon to conduct the
  meeting in his place.149 Eisenhower's officials
  were not sure as to whether Castro was a
  communist, but hostile toward the Cubans' efforts
  to decrease their economic reliance on the United
  States

117
Cuban Revolution and the Bay of Pigs

• n January 1961, just prior to leaving office,
  Eisenhower formally severed relations with the
  Cuban government. In April 1961, the
  administration of newly-elected American
  President John F. Kennedy mounted an unsuccessful
  CIA-organized invasion of the island at Playa
  Girón in the Bay of Pigs  a failure that
  publicly humiliated the United States.150
  Castro responded by embracing Marxism-Leninism,
  and the Soviet Union pledged to provide support.

118
Berlin Crisis of 1961

• The Berlin Crisis of 1961 was the last major
  incident in the Cold War regarding the status of
  Berlin and postWorld War II Germany. By the
  early 1950s, the Soviet approach to restricting
  emigration movement was emulated by most of the
  rest of the Eastern Bloc.151 However, hundreds
  of thousands of East Germans annually emigrated
  to West Germany through a "loophole" in the
  system that existed between East and West Berlin,
  where the four occupying World War II powers
  governed movement.
• The emigration resulted in a massive "brain
  drain" from East Germany to West Germany of
  younger educated professionals, such that nearly
  20 of East Germany's population had migrated to
  West Germany by 1961.153 That June, the Soviet
  Union issued a new ultimatum demanding the
  withdrawal of Allied forces from West
  Berlin.154 The request was rebuffed, and in
  August, East Germany erected a barbed-wire
  barrier that would eventually be expanded through
  construction into the Berlin Wall, effectively
  closing the loophole

119
Cuban Missile Crisis and Khrushchev ouster

• A U.S. Navy P-2 of VP-18 flying over a Soviet
  freighter during the Cuban Missile Crisis

120
Cuban Missile Crisis and Khrushchev ouster

• Continuing to seek ways to oust Castro following
  the Bay of Pigs, Kennedy and his admini