Chapter 1: Introduction Defining Development

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Chapter 1 IntroductionDefining Development

• The science of human development
• seeks to understand how and why peopleall kinds
  of people, everywhere, of every agechange over
  time.

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Understanding How and Why

• Something that is empirical is based on
  observations, repeated experiences, verifiable
  experiments. It is not theoretical.
• The scientific method is a way to answer
  questions using empirical research and data-based
  conclusions.

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Understanding How and Why

• Five Basic Steps of the Scientific Method
• Begin with curiosity.
• Develop a hypothesis.
• Test the hypothesis.
• Draw conclusions.
• Report the results.

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The Scientific Method

• Often, a sixth step is needed before the
  scientific community accepts conclusions.
• Replication The repetition of a study, using
  different participants.

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The Nature-Nurture Debate

• Nature refers to the influence of genes which we
  inherit.
• Nurture refers to environmental influences, such
  as
• health and diet of the embryos mother
• family
• school
• community
• society

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Critical and Sensitive Periods

• A critical period is a time when certain things
  must occur for normal development.
• A sensitive period is when a particular
  development occurs most easily.

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Observing Changes Over Time

• Dynamic-Systems Theory
• A view of human development as an ongoing,
  ever-changing interaction between the physical
  and emotional being and between the person and
  every aspect of his or her environment, including
  the family and society.

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The Life-Span Perspective
An approach to the study of human development
that takes into account all phases of life, not
just childhood or adulthood.

• Development is Multidirectional
• Over time, human characteristics change in every
  direction.
• Several major theorists describe stages of
  development Freud, Erickson, Piaget.
• Others view development as a continuous process.

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The Life-Span Perspective

• Ecological-Systems Approach
• The view that in the study of human
  development, the person should be considered in
  all the contexts and interactions that constitute
  a life. (Later renamed bioecological theory.)

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The Life-Span Perspective

• Development Is Multicontextual
• Historical Context- All persons born within a few
  years of one another are said to be a cohort, a
  group defined by the shared age of its members.

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The Life-Span Perspective

• Socioeconomic Context
• socioeconomic status (SES)
• A persons position in society as determined by
  income, wealth, occupation, education, and place
  of residence.

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The Life-Span Perspective

• Development Is Multicultural
• Culture - patterns of behavior passed from one
  generation to the next.
• Vygotsky described the interaction between
  culture and education.

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The Life-Span Perspective

• Development Is Multicultural
• Ethnic group - People whose ancestors were born
  in the same region and who often share a
  language, culture, and religion
• Race A group of people who are regarded by
  themselves or by others as distinct from other
  groups on the basis of physical appearance.

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The Life-Span Perspective

• Development Is Multidisciplinary
• Genetics and neuroscience are two of the newer
  disciplines in lifespan research.
• Every traitpsychological as well as physicalis
  influenced by genes.

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The Life-Span Perspective

• Development Is Plastic
• Human traits can be molded, yet people maintain a
  certain durability of identity (as plastic can).
• Mirror neurons- Cells in an observers brain that
  respond to an action performed by someone else in
  the same way they would if the observer had
  actually performed it.

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Using the Scientific Method

• Scientific Observation
• Requires the researcher to record behavior
  systematically and objectively.
• May be done in a naturalistic setting such as a
  home, school, or other public place.
• May be done in a laboratory.

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Using the Scientific Method

• The Experiment establishes causal relationships
  among variables.
• independent variable- variable that is introduced
  to see what effect it has on the dependent
  variable.
• dependent variable- variable that may change as a
  result of whatever new condition or situation the
  experimenter adds.

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Using the Scientific Method

• experimental group- gets a particular treatment
  (the independent variable).
• comparison group (also called a control group),
  which does not get the experimental group
  treatment.

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Using the Scientific Method

• The Survey
• Information is collected from a large number of
  people.
• Acquiring valid survey data is not easy.
• Some people lie, some change their minds.
• Survey answers are influenced by the wording and
  the sequence of the questions.

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Studying Development over the Life Span

• Cross-sectional Research
• Groups of people of one age are compared with
  people of another age.
• Longitudinal Research
• Collecting data repeatedly on the same
  individuals as they age.
• Cross-sequential Research
• Study several groups of people of different ages
  (a cross-sectional approach) and follow them over
  the years (a longitudinal approach).

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Using the Scientific Method
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Cautions from Science

• Correlation and Causation
• A correlation exists between two variables if one
  variable is more (or less) likely to occur when
  the other does.
• Positive correlation - both variables tend to
  increase or decrease together.
• Negative correlation - one variable tends to
  increase while the other decreases.
• Zero correlation - no connection is evident.
• Correlation is not causation

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Cautions from Science

• Quantity and Quality
• Quantitative research
• Provides data that can be expressed with
  numbers, such as ranks or scales.
• Qualitative research
• Considers qualities instead of quantities.
• -Descriptions of particular conditions and
  participants expressed ideas are often part of
  qualitative studies.

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Ethics

• Each academic discipline and professional society
  involved in the study of human development has a
  code of ethics.
• An Institutional Review Board (IRB) ensures that
  research follows established guidelines and
  remains ethical.
• Participation is voluntary, confidential, and
  harmless.
• Research subjects must give informed consent-
  understand the research procedures and any risks
  involved.