Genetica TLB Na

1
Genetica TLB Na

• Vincenzo Nigro
• Dipartimento di patologia generale, Seconda
  Università degli Studi di Napoli
• Telethon Institute of Genetics and Medicine

2
Cos'è il genoma?

• Il genoma è l'intero patrimonio genetico di un
  organismo vivente. Si può paragonare ad un'enorme
  enciclopedia in cui sono contenute le istruzioni
  che regolano lo sviluppo e il funzionamento
  dell'organismo
• Il genoma è "scritto" in un composto chimico
  chiamato DNA (DeoxyriboNucleic Acid, acido
  desossiribonucleico)
• Il DNA è identico per tutte le cellule di un
  individuo ed è contenuto nel nucleo

3
1953
Il genoma è l'intero patrimonio genetico di un
organismo vivente. La grandezza totale del genoma
umano aploide è di 3.070.000.000 basi di cui
2.843.000.000 sono di eucromatina Il DNA è
identico per tutte le cellule di un individuo ed
è contenuto nel nucleo
2001
4

• La grandezza totale del genoma umano aploide è di
  3.070.000.000 basi di cui 2.843.000.000 sono di
  eucromatina

5
Lunghezza dei cromosomi totale eucromatina
1 245,203,898 218,712,898
2 243,315,028 237,043,673
3 199,411,731 193,607,218
4 191,610,523 186,580,523
5 180,967,295 177,524,972
6 170,740,541 166,880,540
7 158,431,299 154,546,299
8 145,908,738 141,694,337
9 134,505,819 115,187,714
10 135,480,874 130,710,865
11 134,978,784 130,709,420
12 133,464,434 129,328,332
13 114,151,656 95,511,656
14 105,311,216 87,191,216
15 100,114,055 81,117,055
16 89,995,999 79,890,791
17 81,691,216 77,480,855
18 77,753,510 74,534,531
19 63,790,860 55,780,860
20 63,644,868 59,424,990
21 46,976,537 33,924,742
22 49,476,972 34,352,051
X 152,634,166 147,686,664
Y 50,961,097 22,761,097
6
UCSC Genome Browser
Screenshot from University of California at Santa
Cruz http//genome.ucsc.edu
7
Un tratto di DNA (gene)
Un cromosoma
Cariotipo
8
La diversità genetica umana è bassa

9
Genoma umano
sea3093
3,080,000,000 bp 25,000 geni
10
Geni con mutazioni che causano malattie umane
Esoni dei geni umani (in milioni di basi)
28 M
3.372
Totale 3.100 M
Totale 25.000 geni
le mutazioni di sole 12 basi del DNA su 10.000
causano tutte le malattie monogeniche
(mendeliane) note sinora
11
SNPssingle nucleotide polymorphisms

• Natural sequence variation occurs between any two
  copies of the human genome.
• Most variations are SNPs involving single base
  substitutions the rest are insertions or
  deletions
• A SNP is detected by sequencing a particular
  region from different individuals, who may have
  identical (homozygous T/T or C/C) or different
  (heterozygous T/C) bases at the polymorphic site

12
ACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCG
ACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCA
CACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACG
TAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTG
AAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGT
GCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACAC
ACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACC
GCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGG
GCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAAC
AGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTA
GCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACAC
AGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTC
GAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTC
TCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCT
CCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTA
GCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGAT
ATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGA
CCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGA
TATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGA
CACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTC
CTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATAT
AGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTG
ACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATA
GCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACA
GCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCT
CGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCG
CTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCT
GACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTC
GCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTC
GCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAG
ACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCC
CTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACC
GTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGAC
ACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACA
CCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGAACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAG
GGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAA
CAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCT
AGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACA
CAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCT
CGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCT
CTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGC
TCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCT
AGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGA
TATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAG
ACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCG
ATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCG
ACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCT
CCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATA
TAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCT
GACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATAT
AGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACAC
AGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTC
TCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGC
GCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACC
TGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCT
CGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCT
CGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGA
GACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTC
CCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGAC
ACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCG
ACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCA
CACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTC
GCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTC
GCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAG
ACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCC
CTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACA
CGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGA
CACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCAC
ACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGT
AGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGA
AACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTG
CTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACA
CACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCG
CTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGCGAGACGT
AGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGA
AACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTG
CTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACA
CACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCG
CTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGG
CTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACA
GCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAG
CTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGAC
ACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACA
CCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTA
GGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAA
ACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGC
TAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACAC
ACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGC
TCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGC
TCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAG
CTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGC
TAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAG
ATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGA
GACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTC
GATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCC
GACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGC
TCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATAT
ATAGCGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGC
TCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTG
ACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGACGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGC
TCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGC
TCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCG
AGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCT
CCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGA
CACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGC
GACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGC
ACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGAC
GTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCT
GAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACG
TGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACA
CACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACAC
CGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAG
GGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAA
CAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCT
AGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACA
CAGATATATAGCGGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAG
ATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGA
GATAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACAC
ACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACC
GCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGG
GCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGTAGGGCTCTCG
ATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCG
ACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCT
CCTCTCGACGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGAT
ATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGA
CCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGA
TATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGA
CACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAG
GGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAA
CAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCT
AGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACA
CAGATATATAGCGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATAT
ATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACC
TGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGACGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCG
ATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCG
ACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCT
CCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATA
TAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCT
TAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACAC
ACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGC
TCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGC
TCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGTAGGGCTCTCGAT
ATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGAC
ACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCC
TCTCGACGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATAT
ATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACC
TGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATA
TAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACA
CAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGG
CTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATTATAGCTCGCGACACACA
CAGATATATAGCGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATAT
ATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACC
TGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGACGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCG
ATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCG
ACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCT
CCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATA
TAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCT
TAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACAC
ACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGC
TCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTTATAG
CTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGA
CACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCAC
ACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGACGAGA
CGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCC
TGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACAC
GTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGAC
ACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACA
CCGCTCGAGACCTTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATA
GCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACA
GCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCT
CGAGACGTAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATAT
ATAGCGGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATA
GCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGATAGCT
AGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGA
TATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAG
ACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCG
ATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGC
TCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGC
TCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCG
ACGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGC
GCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACC
TGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCT
CGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCT
CGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTC
GATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCC
GACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGC
TCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATAT
ATAGCGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGC
TCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTG
ACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGACGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGC
TCGCCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTC
GCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTC
GCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAC
GAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGC
TCACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCG
CGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCG
CACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGA
CGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCC
TGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACAC
GTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGAC
ACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACA
CCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTA
GGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAA
ACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGC
TAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACAC
ACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGC
TCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGC
TCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAG
CTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGC
TAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAG
ATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGA
GACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTC
GATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGA
DNA sequence variants
We are all different from each other
13
SNPs in the human genome http//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.
gov/SNP/ DB SNP built 132 (23 Sep 2010) Total
30,442,771 (validati 19,727,605) Total
codificanti 111,003 Sinonime
46,621 Nonsinonime 64,382
14
(No Transcript)
15
ACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCG
ACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCA
CACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACG
TAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTG
AAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGT
GCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACAC
ACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACC
GCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGG
GCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAAC
AGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTA
GCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACAC
AGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTC
GAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTC
TCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCT
CCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTA
GCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGAT
ATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGA
CCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGA
TATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGA
CACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTC
CTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATAT
AGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTG
ACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATA
GCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACA
GCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCT
CGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCG
CTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCT
GACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTC
GCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTC
GCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAG
ACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCC
CTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACC
GTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGAC
ACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACA
CCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGAACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAG
GGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAA
CAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCT
AGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACA
CAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCT
CGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCT
CTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGC
TCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCT
AGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGA
TATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAG
ACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCG
ATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCG
ACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCT
CCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATA
TAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCT
GACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATAT
AGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACAC
AGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTC
TCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGC
GCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACC
TGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCT
CGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCT
CGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGA
GACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTC
CCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGAC
ACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCG
ACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCA
CACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTC
GCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTC
GCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAG
ACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCC
CTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACA
CGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGA
CACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCAC
ACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGT
AGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGA
AACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTG
CTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACA
CACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCG
CTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGCGAGACGT
AGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGA
AACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTG
CTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACA
CACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCG
CTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGG
CTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACA
GCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAG
CTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGAC
ACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACA
CCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTA
GGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAA
ACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGC
TAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACAC
ACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGC
TCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGC
TCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAG
CTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGC
TAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAG
ATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGA
GACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTC
GATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCC
GACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGC
TCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATAT
ATAGCGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGC
TCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTG
ACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGACGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGC
TCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGC
TCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCG
AGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCT
CCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGA
CACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGC
GACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGC
ACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGAC
GTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCT
GAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACG
TGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACA
CACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACAC
CGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAG
GGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAA
CAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCT
AGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACA
CAGATATATAGCGGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAG
ATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGA
GATAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACAC
ACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACC
GCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGG
GCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGTAGGGCTCTCG
ATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCG
ACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCT
CCTCTCGACGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGAT
ATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGA
CCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGA
TATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGA
CACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAG
GGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAA
CAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCT
AGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACA
CAGATATATAGCGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATAT
ATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACC
TGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGACGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCG
ATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCG
ACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCT
CCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATA
TAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCT
TAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACAC
ACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGC
TCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGC
TCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGTAGGGCTCTCGAT
ATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGAC
ACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCC
TCTCGACGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATAT
ATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACC
TGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATA
TAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACA
CAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGG
CTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATTATAGCTCGCGACACACA
CAGATATATAGCGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATAT
ATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACC
TGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGACGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCG
ATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCG
ACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCT
CCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATA
TAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCT
TAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACAC
ACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGC
TCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTTATAG
CTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGA
CACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCAC
ACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGACGAGA
CGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCC
TGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACAC
GTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGAC
ACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACA
CCGCTCGAGACCTTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATA
GCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACA
GCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCT
CGAGACGTAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATAT
ATAGCGGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATA
GCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGATAGCT
AGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGA
TATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAG
ACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCG
ATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGC
TCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGC
TCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCG
ACGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGC
GCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACC
TGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCT
CGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCT
CGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTC
GATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCC
GACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGC
TCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATAT
ATAGCGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGC
TCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTG
ACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGACGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGC
TCGCCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTC
GCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTC
GCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAC
GAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGC
TCACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCG
CGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCG
CACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGA
CGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCC
TGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACAC
GTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGAC
ACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACA
CCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTA
GGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAA
ACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGC
TAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACAC
ACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGC
TCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGC
TCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAG
CTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGC
TAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAG
ATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGA
GACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTC
GATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGA
DNA sequence variants
Neutral
Predisposing
Pathogenic
16
1000 genomi

• In media ogni individuo ha
• 10.500-12.000 SNPs sinonimi
• 10.000-10.800 SNPs non sinonimi di cui
• Perdita di stop 4-14
• Nuovi stop 67-100
• Perdita di splice-sites 28-45
• Frame-shift 192-280
• Grandi delezioni 33-49
• Totale variazioni dannose 240-345

17
ACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCG
ACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCA
CACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACG
TAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTG
AAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGT
GCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACAC
ACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACC
GCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGG
GCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAAC
AGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTA
GCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACAC
AGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTC
GAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTC
TCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCT
CCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTA
GCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGAT
ATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGA
CCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGA
TATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGA
CACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTC
CTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATAT
AGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTG
ACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATA
GCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACA
GCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCT
CGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCG
CTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCT
GACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTC
GCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTC
GCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAG
ACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCC
CTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACC
GTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGAC
ACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACA
CCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGAACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAG
GGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAA
CAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCT
AGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACA
CAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCT
CGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCT
CTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGC
TCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCT
AGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGA
TATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAG
ACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCG
ATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCG
ACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCT
CCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATA
TAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCT
GACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATAT
AGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACAC
AGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTC
TCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGC
GCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACC
TGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCT
CGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCT
CGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGA
GACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTC
CCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGAC
ACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCG
ACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCA
CACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTC
GCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTC
GCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAG
ACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCC
CTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACA
CGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGA
CACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCAC
ACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGT
AGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGA
AACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTG
CTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACA
CACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCG
CTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGCGAGACGT
AGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGA
AACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTG
CTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACA
CACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCG
CTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGG
CTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACA
GCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAG
CTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGAC
ACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACA
CCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTA
GGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAA
ACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGC
TAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACAC
ACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGC
TCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGC
TCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAG
CTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGC
TAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAG
ATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGA
GACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTC
GATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCC
GACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGC
TCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATAT
ATAGCGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGC
TCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTG
ACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGACGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGC
TCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGC
TCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCG
AGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCT
CCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGA
CACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGC
GACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGC
ACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGAC
GTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCT
GAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACG
TGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACA
CACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACAC
CGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAG
GGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAA
CAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCT
AGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACA
CAGATATATAGCGGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAG
ATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGA
GATAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACAC
ACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACC
GCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGG
GCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGTAGGGCTCTCG
ATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCG
ACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCT
CCTCTCGACGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGAT
ATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGA
CCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGA
TATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGA
CACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAG
GGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAA
CAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCT
AGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACA
CAGATATATAGCGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATAT
ATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACC
TGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGACGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCG
ATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCG
ACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCT
CCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATA
TAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCT
TAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACAC
ACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGC
TCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGC
TCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGTAGGGCTCTCGAT
ATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGAC
ACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCC
TCTCGACGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATAT
ATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACC
TGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATA
TAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACA
CAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGG
CTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATTATAGCTCGCGACACACA
CAGATATATAGCGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATAT
ATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACC
TGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGACGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCG
ATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCG
ACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCT
CCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATA
TAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCT
TAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACAC
ACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGC
TCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTTATAG
CTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGA
CACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCAC
ACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGACGAGA
CGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCC
TGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACAC
GTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGAC
ACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACA
CCGCTCGAGACCTTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATA
GCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACA
GCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCT
CGAGACGTAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATAT
ATAGCGGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATA
GCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGATAGCT
AGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGA
TATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAG
ACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCG
ATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGC
TCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGC
TCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCG
ACGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGC
GCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACC
TGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCT
CGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCT
CGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTC
GATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCC
GACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGC
TCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATAT
ATAGCGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGC
TCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTG
ACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGACGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGC
TCGCCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTC
GCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTC
GCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAC
GAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGC
TCACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCG
CGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCG
CACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGA
CGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCC
TGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACAC
GTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGAC
ACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACA
CCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTA
GGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAA
ACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGC
TAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACAC
ACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGC
TCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGC
TCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAG
CTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGC
TAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAG
ATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGA
GACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTC
GATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGA
18
ACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCG
ACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCA
CACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACG
TAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTG
AAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGT
GCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACAC
ACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACC
GCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGG
GCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAAC
AGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTA
GCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACAC
AGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTC
GAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTC
TCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCT
CCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTA
GCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGAT
ATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGA
CCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGA
TATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGA
CACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTC
CTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATAT
AGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTG
ACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATA
GCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACA
GCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCT
CGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCG
CTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCT
GACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTC
GCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTC
GCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAG
ACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCC
CTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACC
GTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGAC
ACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACA
CCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGAACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAG
GGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAA
CAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCT
AGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACA
CAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCT
CGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCT
CTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGC
TCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCT
AGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGA
TATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAG
ACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCG
ATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCG
ACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCT
CCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATA
TAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCT
GACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATAT
AGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACAC
AGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTC
TCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGC
GCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACC
TGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCT
CGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCT
CGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGA
GACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTC
CCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGAC
ACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCG
ACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCA
CACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTC
GCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTC
GCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAG
ACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCC
CTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACA
CGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGA
CACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCAC
ACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGT
AGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGA
AACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTG
CTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACA
CACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCG
CTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGCGAGACGT
AGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGA
AACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTG
CTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACA
CACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCG
CTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGG
CTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACA
GCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAG
CTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGAC
ACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACA
CCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTA
GGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAA
ACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGC
TAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACAC
ACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGC
TCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGC
TCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAG
CTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGC
TAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAG
ATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGA
GACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTC
GATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCC
GACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGC
TCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATAT
ATAGCGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGC
TCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTG
ACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGACGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGC
TCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGC
TCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCG
AGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCT
CCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGA
CACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACTATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGC
TCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACCGAGACGTAGG
GCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAAC
AGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTA
GCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACAC
AGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTC
GAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTC
TCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCT
CCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTA
GCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGAT
ATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGA
CCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGA
TATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGA
CACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTC
CTCTCGAGCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGAT
ATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGA
CCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGA
TATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGA
CACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTC
CTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATAT
AGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTG
ACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGCGAGACGTAGGGCTCT
CGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTC
CGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAG
CTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATA
TATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGAC
CTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGAT
ATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGAC
ACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCC
TCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATA
GCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGA
CCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAG
CTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAG
CTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTC
GAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGC
TCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTG
ACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCG
CGACACACACAGATATATAGCGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACA
CACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCG
CTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGACGAGACGTA
GGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAA
ACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGC
TAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACAC
ACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGC
TCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGC
TCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAG
CTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGC
TAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAG
ATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGA
GACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTC
GATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCC
GACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGC
TCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATAT
ATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACC
TGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATA
TAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAG
CTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAG
CTCGCACACCGCTCGAGATAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCG
ATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCG
ACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCT
CCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATA
TAGCGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCT
CCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGA
CACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGACGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCT
CGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCT
CGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGA
GACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTC
CCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTTAGCTAGC
TCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATAT
ATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACC
TGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATA
TAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCG
CGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCG
CACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGACG
AGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCT
CCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGA
CACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGC
GACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGC
ACACCGCTCGAGACCTTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGAT
ATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGAC
ACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCC
TCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATA
GCGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCC
CTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACA
CGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGACGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCG
CGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCG
CACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGA
CGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCC
TGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTTAGCTAGCTC
CTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATTA
TAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCG
CGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCG
CACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGACG
AGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCT
CCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGA
CACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGC
GACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGC
ACACCGCTCGAGACCTTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGAT
ATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGAC
ACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCC
TCTCGAGACGTTATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGTAGGGCTC
TCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCT
CCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTA
GCTCCTCTCGACGAGACGTAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACA
GATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTCCGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCG
AGACCTGACCTGACACGTGCTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACGTAGGGCTCT
CGATATAGCTCGCGACACACACAGATATATAGCGCTCCCTGAAACAGCTC
CGACACAGCTCGCACACCGCTCGAGACCTTAGCTAGCTCCTCTCGAGACG
TAGGGCTCTCGATATAGCTCGCGA
Copy Number Variation 10 of the human genome
could vary in copy number
1
2
19
(No Transcript)
20
(No Transcript)
21
meiosi

• La meiosi è il processo che porta alla formazione
  dei gameti
• I gameti sono cellule aploidi hanno la metà dei
  cromosomi delle cellule diploidi
• 23 è il numero di cromosomi dei gameti
• 46 è il numero di cromosomi di ogni altra cellula
  umana
• La meiosi consiste in due divisioni cellulari
  meiosi I (riduzionale) e meiosi II (equazionale)
  che producono quattro cellule aploidi

22
meiosi

• Meiosi I
• Replicazione del DNA
• 46 cromosomi
• 92 Cromatidi / 92 dsDNA
• Divisione riduzionale
• separazione delle coppie di cromosomi
• 23 cromosomi
• 46 cromatidi / 46 dsDNA
• Meiosi II
• Separazione dei cromatidi
• 23 cromosomi
• 23 cromatidi / 23 dsDNA

23
Meiosi I 46 cromosomi 92 Cromatidi / 92 dsDNA

1. Profase I ciascun cromosoma si duplica e le due
   parti restano strettamente associate. Questi sono
   chiamati cromatidi fratelli. Il crossing-over
   avviene in questa fase
2. Metafase I I cromosomi omologhi si allineano al
   piano equatoriale
3. Anafase I Le coppie omologhe si separano e i
   cromatidi fratelli restano uniti
4. Telofase I le due cellule figlie contengono solo
   un cromosoma di ciascuna coppia

24
meiosi I, profase I

• Leptotene
• i cromosomi si rendono visibili
• Zygotene
• le coppie di cromosomi omologhi formano le
  tetradi
• Pachitene
• crossing over
• Diplotene
• i cromosomi iniziano a separarsi ma sono tenuti
  insieme dai chiasmi
• Diacinesi
• ulteriore accorciamento dei cromosomi omologhi

25
Meiosi II 23 cromosomi 23 cromatidi / 23 dsDNA

1. Profase II il DNA delle due cellule figlie non
   si replica.
2. Metafase II i cromosomi si allineano al piano
   equatoriale
3. Anafase II I centromeri si dividono e i
   cromatidi fratelli migrano separatamente a
   ciascun polo
4. Telofase II la seconda divisione cellulare è
   completa. Quattro cellule figlie aploidi (23)
   sono ottenute

26
Gametogenesi
Oogonium
Spermatogonium
Primary oocyte
Primary spermatocyte
Secondary oocyte
Secondary spermatocytes
Polar Body I
4 spermatids
Polar Body II
Fertilized Ovum
4 spermatozoa
27
maschio
Oogonium
spermatogonio
Per tutta la vita
Mitosi alla pubertà
Primary oocyte
spermatocita primario
Meiosi in 64gg
Secondary oocyte
spermatocita Secondario
Polar Body I
4 spermatidi
Polar Body II
Fertilized Ovum
4 spermatozoi
28
Oogonio
Mitosis
oocita primario
femmina
oocita secondario e corpo polare I
Fertilized Ovum Polar body II
29
Cromosomi (corpi colorati)

• durante il ciclo cellulare i cromosomi replicano
  e si formano due cromatidi fratelli tenuti
  insieme dal centromero
• braccio corto p (petit)
• braccio lungo q (lettera successiva)

30
citogenetica di routine
da linfociti sono rappresentativi di ciascun
altra cellula del corpo
31
(No Transcript)
32
citogenetica prenatale

• da amniociti
• da villi coriali
• dovrebbero essere rappresentativi delle cellule
  del feto

• difficili da ottenere

33
(No Transcript)
34
Cromatina (DNAproteine)

• Eucromatina - meno condensata contiene il DNA
  codificante
• Eterocromatina - più condensata non contiene DNA
  codificante, ma solo DNA non codificante
• Telomeri - cappucci allestremità dei cromosomi
  che comprendono ripetizioni multiple della
  sequenza TTAGGG
• Centromeri - regioni specializzate di DNA che
  forniscono il sito di ancoraggio del fuso mitotico

35
Tecnica Procedura Banding pattern
bandeggio G Proteolisi limitata seguita dalla colorazione Giemsa Le bande scure sono ricche in AT Le bande chiare sono ricche in GC

bandeggio R denaturazione al calore seguita dalla colrazione con Giemsa Le bande scure sono ricche in GC Le bande chiare sono ricche in AT

bandeggio Q digestione enzimatica e colorazione con un colorante fluorescente, cioè la Quinacrina Le bande scure sono ricche in AT Le bande chiare sono ricche in GC

bandeggio C denaturazione con idrossido di bario e poi colorazione con Giemsa Le bande scure sono ricche in eterocromatina costitutiva
36
(No Transcript)
37
(No Transcript)
38

• metacentrici, se il centromero è centrale 1, 2,
  3, 16, 17, 18, 19
• submetacentrici, se il centromero non è centrale
  e non è vicino ad unestremità 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
  10, 11, 12, 20, X, Y
• acrocentrici, se il centromero è vicino ad
  unestremità 13, 14, 15, 21, 22

39
(No Transcript)
40
CCDS IDs per chromosome CCDS IDs per chromosome
Chromosome Count
1 2,513
2 1,548
3 1,299
4 898
5 1,028
6 1,236
7 1,094
8 807
9 921
10 971
11 1,509
12 1,240
13 385
14 749
15 711
16 967
17 1,370
18 350
19 1,616
20 672
21 282
22 530
X 967
Y 53
XY 23
41
Eteromorfismi citogenetici

• Variazione pericentromerica del crom. 9 9qh
• Inversione 9 inv
• Variazione inversione

42
Ereditarietà della variazionepericentromerica
del cromosoma 1
43
Le alterazioni cromosomiche sono più frequenti al
crescere delletà materna, mentre le mutazioni
puntiformi sono legate al numero di divisioni
cellulari che avvengono circa ogni 15 gg nella
linea germinale maschile
44
tritest interpretazione dei risultati
anomalia fetale AFP Alfa-feto proteina Beta hCG uEestriolo non coniugato
NTD difetti del tubo neurale Normale Normale
Trisomia 21
Trisomia 18
NTD anencefalia, spina bifida and encefalocele
45
Il duotest (double screen) include la valutazione
del PAPP-A (Pregnancy Associated Plasma Protein
A) e la frazione libera della gonadotropina
corionica (free-betaHCG). Viene effettuato tra la
10ma e la 13ma settimana di gravidanza dal siero
della gestante
Translucenza nucale free-bHCG PAPP-A
Trisomia 21 -
Trisomia 13,18 - - - -
S. di Turner /- -
Triploidia materna /- - - - - - - -
Triploidia paterna /-
46
Patologia fetale Sensibilità
NTD - AFP solo 75-80 spina bifida 95 anencefalia
Trisomia 21 - Tritest 70 Down sindrome
Trisomia 18 - Tritest 80 sindrome di Edward
47
Frequenza di anomalie cromosomiche negli aborti
spontanei (39.8-40.9)

• trisomie autosomiche 49-52
• Turner (45, X) 15-19
• triploidia (69) 15-16
• tetraploidia (92) 5-6
• altre anomalie 6-14

48
trisomia 21 Down
Il 70 delle gravidanze non giunge a termine
49
anomalie cromosomiche riscontrate
13
12
11.2
p
11.1
11.1
27
mosaicism
11.2
2
altre t
3
t2122
21
17
t2121
5
t1521
Anomalia
q
6
t1321
22.1
15
t1421
925
D21S17
free T21
22.2
DSCR
ETS2
1
10
100
1000
22.3
MX1
Numero
HC21
50
40.000 casi in Italia
trisomia 21 Down

• Neurologici
• Ritardo mentale 100
• Alzheimer dopo i 35anni 100
• Ipotonia muscolare 100
• Bassa statura 70
• Testa
• Brachicefalia 75
• Epicanto 60
• brushfield spots iride 55
• lingua protrudente 45
• orecchie displastiche 50

51
trisomia 21 Down

• Arti corti, mani larghe 65
• Mignolo corto 60
• Solco palmare trasverso 60
• Cuore
• Difetti cardiaci congeniti 40
• Canale atrioventricolare 16
• Anomali gastrointestinali
• Atresia/stenosi duodenale 250x
• ano imperforato 50x
• Hirschsprung 300x
• Sangue
• Leucemia acuta megacariocitica 300x
• Leucemia (ALL e AML) 10-20x

52
XX o XY

• Il sesso maschile è determinato dalla presenza
  del cromosoma Y
• Si sono evoluti meccanismi per compensare la
  differenza di dosaggio genico del cromosoma X,
  presente in 2 copie nelle femmine e in 1 copia
  nei maschi

53
2 cromosomi X nelle donne, 1 solo negli uomini?

• il cromosoma X raddoppia lespressione di tutti i
  geni contenuti, cioè si produce 2 volte più RNA
• nelle femmine uno dei due cromosomi X è
  inattivato casualmente in ciascuna cellula allo
  stadio di blastocisti

54
Il Klinefelter?

• Nel Klinefelter (XXY) uno dei due cromosomi X è
  inattivato casualmente in ciascuna cellula allo
  stadio di blastocisti
• Quindi il dosaggio sarebbe mantenuto

55
Sindrome di Klinefelter (47,XXY)1900-1600
maschi

• Il 50 delle gravidanze giunge a termine
• Fenotipo maschile
• Caratteristiche principali
• Statura alta
• Ipogonadismo, bassi livelli di testosterone,
  mancata produzione di spermatozoi (azoospermia) e
  quindi sterilità
• Ginecomastia
• Sia lintelligenza sia lattesa di vita sono
  quasi normali

56
Le regioni PAR presenti sui cromosomi sessuali
contengono geni che non sono inattivati, perché
il doppio dosaggio è assicurato comunque
PAR1 ha 24 geni, PAR2 ha solo 4 geni
57
Il gene SHOXShort stature HOmeoboX-containing

• Mutazioni o delezioni del gene SHOX nella regione
  PAR1 causa ritardo di crescita e bassa statura.
• La bassa statura di donne con sindrome di Turner
  Syndrome (X0) è il risultato di una sola copia di
  SHOX (ma anche il quarto metacarpo corto)
• La maggiore statura nel Klinefelter (XXY) e nella
  tripla X (XXX) potrebbe essere il risultato di 3
  copie di SHOX

58
Trisomia X (47,XXX)11.200

• Il 70 delle gravidanze giunge a termine
• Errore nella disgiunzione materna e correla con
  letà materna
• Caratteristiche principali
• Statura alta
• Fertilità normale, irregolarità ciclo
• Sia lintelligenza sia lattesa di vita sono
  normali

59
Maschio (47,XYY)11.000 maschi

• Fenotipo maschile
• Caratteristiche principali
• Statura alta
• Fertilità normale
• Non vi è correlazione con letà paterna
• Sia lintelligenza sia lattesa di vita sono
  perfettamente normali

60
Monosomia X (45,X0) Turner

• Prende il nome dallendocrinologo Henry Turner
  che la descrisse nel 1938
• La sindrome di Turner (TS) definisce un complesso
  fenotipo umano femminile, dovuto a completa o
  parziale assenza del secondo cromosoma sessuale
• Dipende da un errore nella spermatogenesi
  nell80 dei casi e non correla con letà dei
  genitori
• Un precedente figlio con TS non aumenta il
  rischio riproduttivo previsto per una coppia di
  pari età

61
Monosomia X (45,X0) Turner

• È lunica monosomia compatibile con la vita, ma
  il 98 di tutti i feti monosomici TS va incontro
  ad aborto spontaneo
• Lincidenza negli aborti è circa il 7-10, mentre
  alla nascita è 1/2500 femmine.
• Non è chiaro perché il cariotipo 45, X0 sia
  letale in utero ed invece compatibile con la
  sopravvivenza postnatale
• La vera monosomia del cromosoma X è responsabile
  del 45 dei casi TS gli altri hanno mosaicismo
  (45, X0/46, XX) e/o un anormale cromosoma X o Y
• Un basso livello di mosaicismo somatico Turner,
  inferiore al 2, è di normale riscontro nella
  popolazione

62
Monosomia X (45,X0) Turner

• la menopausa precede il menarca
• Le ovaie sono allungate e formate da tessuto
  stromale privo di follicoligli oociti sono
  spesso andati in apoptosi prima dei 2 anni di
  vita
• Linsufficienza ovarica prepuberale porta ad
  amenorrea primaria, sterilità e carenza di
  estrogeni
• In meno del 10 dei casi, la pubertà può
• verificarsi e sono possibili gravidanze con un
  aumentato rischio di perdita fetale
• Anche in rapporto alleterogeneità del genotipo,
  il fenotipo si manifesta in modo molto variabile

63
Monosomia X (45,X0)Turner 12.500

• patologie dellorecchio medio (otite media
  ricorrente)
• Linfedema con rigonfiamento delle mani e dei
  piedi
• pterigio del collo (presenza di pliche cutanee
  con
• aspetto di sfinge)
• il quarto metacarpo (anulare) più corto
• una mandibola più piccola (micrognazia)
• torace largo con aumento degli
• spazi intercostali
• lattaccatura bassa delle orecchie e dei capelli
• Si possono anche riscontrare cardiopatia sinistra
  (valvola ao