Syntax

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Syntax

• Definition of Syntax
• Types of Grammar
• Hierarchical Structure
• Tree diagram
• Phrase structure rules
• Recursiveness
• Deep/surface structure
• Universal Grammar
• Principles
• Parameters

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Definition of Syntax (1)

• syntaxis (Greek) arrangement
• The rules of sentence formation the study of
• the structure of sentences.
• Language Structure
• Phonology Grammar Semantics
• morphology syntax
• (more traditional)

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Definition of Syntax (2)

• Popularized by Chomsky (the general sense)
• Grammar
• Phonology (Morphology) Syntax Semantics

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II.    Types of Grammar

1. Mental Grammar Internal linguistic knowledge (in
   the mind)
2. Developmental Grammar a learners grammar
3. Prescriptive Grammar a set of prescribed rules
   which tells people how to speak/write
4. Descriptive Grammar how people do speak in
   actual utterances.
5. Pedagogical Grammar teaching grammar widely used
   in schools

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A. Mental Grammar Internal linguistic
knowledge

• Grammar
• Phonology (Morphology) Syntax Semantics
• Linguistic knowledge in the mind
• Here, well just consider grammatical
• knowledge as structural knowledge but NOTE
• you also must know how to USE the structural
• knowledge.

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• Grammar
• mental grammar ling. etiquette the nature
  of lang.
• (psycholing. view) (sociologists view)
  (ling. view in general)
• Internal ling. knowledge social attitudes
  a description of the grammar
• (what goes on in lang. and values
  (study and analysis of the
• users mind sub- (proper or best
  structures found in a lang.)
• conscious, not result structures to be
• of any teaching) used in a
  lang.)
• 
  prescriptive descriptive

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B. Developmental Grammar a learners grammar

• The mental grammar in the developmental stage
• Type of lang. produced by learners who are in
  the process of learning a language.
• errors in the language use of a L1 or L2
  learner which is the result of a normal pattern
  of development, and is common among language
  learners.
• e.g. comed, goed, breaked
• Overgeneralizations a natural or developmental
  stage in lang. learning.

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C. Prescriptive Grammar a set of prescribed
rules which tells people how to speak/write
socially corrected use of lang.

• A set of rules about how you SHOULD speak or
  write gives judgments on which structures are
  CORRECT and which are INCORRECT
• Their influence lives on in the handbook of usage
  widely found today.
• e.g. double negative(affirmative), aint
• its me, ending sentences with preposition
  (Who are you talking to?)

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D. Descriptive Grammar how people do speak in
actual utterances

• Linguistic description of the structures of a
  language as they are observed to be used, with no
  evaluation (non-judgmental) of social
  correctness.
• Collins Cobuild dictionary examplehuge corpus
  analyzed and described
• e.g. Either of the dictionaries are/is good.
• (but should be is according to prescriptive
  view)
• e.g. Neither of the books were/was a good buy.

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E. Pedagogical Grammar teaching grammars
widely used in schools

• A teaching grammardesigned for developing NS
  students awareness of their mother tongue, or
  for teaching a language as a foreign language.
• Selection from mental grammar to present to
  learners
• Often a combination of descriptive prescriptive
  grammars more contemporary pedagogical grammars
  moving away from prescriptive.
• e.g. M. Swam. Practical English Usage or a
• textbook a grammar book.

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III. Hierarchical Structure (1)

• Concepts of hierarchy
• e.g.1 John is easy to please
• John is eager to please
• Q Do the two sentences have the same sentence
  structure (the same syntax)?
• Paraphrase
• Its easy for somebody to please John.
• John is eager to please somebody.

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III. Hierarchical Structure (2)

• Analogy
• A. university school board, principle, vice
  presidents, dean of academic affairs, dean of
  student affairs, dean of general affairs, dean of
  research and development, dean of each college,
  dept. chairs.
• B. country president, vice- president,
  legistrative yuan (???), executive yuan (???),
  control yuan (???), judicial yuan (???).

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• University
• School board
• President, Vice presidents
• ??? ??? ??? ???
• ?? ?? ? ? ?? ? ?? ? ??
• ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ??
• 
  
• ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ???

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• country
• president vice- president
• legistrative yuan executive yuan control
  yuan judicial yuan
• (???) (???) (???)
  (???)
• 
  

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Hierarchy

• Hilary couldnt open the windows.
• VP NP
• sentence phrases words morphemes
• Constituent part that makes up something a
  linguistic unit which is part of a larger
  construction.
• e.g. Can you identify the construction and
  constituents in the sentence, the boy jumped?

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III. Hierarchical Structure (3)

• Modal of syntactic investigation Five-rank
  hierarchy (Crystal 95)
• Sentences Sentences
• are analyzed into are used to build
• Clauses
  Clauses
• are analyzed into are used to build
• Phrases
  Phrases
• are analyzed into are used to build
• Words
  Words
• are analyzed into are used to build
• Morphemes Morphemes

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Upward Expansion

• Phrases
• e.g. cars ? the cars ? the big cars ? all
• the big cars ? all the big cars in the garage
• (premodification) (head)
  (postmodification)
• Upward expansion
• Tom couldnt find his notes, and Davie couldnt
  find his textbook, and (repeat the structure) . .
  . but he still lectured for three hours.
• Several units of the same type ? then we have
  clauses

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Hierarchy

• Another way to look at hierarchies
  construction and constituents
• The young must respect the old people.
• (A) the young (B) must respect the old people
• (C) the (D) young (E) must respect (F) the old
  people
• (G) must (H) respect (I) the (J) old
  people
• (K) old (L) people

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Clauses

• Clause Types
• SV (The dog is running)
• SVO (The dog bites him)
• SVC (The car is ready)
• SVA (The picture lays on the ground)
• SVOO (I give him a pen)
• SVOC (He calls John a fool)
• SVOA (Mary saw John yesterday)
• Note subject (S), verb (V), complement (C),
  object (O), adverbial (A).

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Formats of the Hierarchy

• Tree Diagrams different levels in analysis
• Phrase Structure (in tree diagrams)
• Recursiveness (Recursion)
• Deep and Surface Structure

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1.Tree Diagrams (1)

• The girl chased the dog. (Crystal 96)
• The girl chased the
  dog
• Identify the 2 major constituents (The girl
  chased the dog)
• Divide the next-biggest constituent into 2
  chased the dog
• Continue dividing constituents into 2 until we
  can go no further.
• e.g. the girl, the dog, chase -ed
• At each level, a structure is divided into its
  major constituents (and the process continues) .
  . .

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1.Tree Diagrams (2)

• Tree Diagrams Different levels in analysis
• The tree diagram format may be viewed as
• A static representation of the structure of the
  sentence at the bottom of the diagram.
• A dynamic format, representing a way of
  generating a very large number of sentences
  with similar structures (by the use of phrase
  structure rules).

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2. Phrase Structure

• S
• NP VP
• ART N V NP
• (DET)
• ART N
• the girl chased the dog

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Phrase Structure Rules (1)

• Phrase structure rules (Nash 75-77) present the
  information of the tree diagram in an alternative
  format S
• S NP VP or NP
  VP
• VP V (NP) (PP) (ADV)
• NP (ART) (ADJ) N
• PRO
• PP P NP
• Note see (Yule 105) for symbols and
  abbreviations definition.

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Phrase Structure Rules (2)

• They are descriptions, not prescriptive rules.
• They show how a sentence can be broken up into
  its various parts, and how each part can be
  expanded.
• The structure of a sentence can be illustrated by
  a tree diagram.

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3. Recursiveness (Recursion)

• Recursive rule VP VS (Yule 107 108 for
  diagram)
• e.g. John said Cathy thought (Mary helped
  George).
• Another e.g. of recursiveness
• The Rose in My Garden http//www.eng.fju.edu.tw/y
  un-pi/2004_2005/linguistics/index.html
• This is the rose in my garden.
• This is the bee that sleeps on the rose in my
  garden.
• These are the holly hocks high above ground,
  that give shade to the bee that sleeps on the
  rose in my garden.

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4. Deep and Surface Structure (1)

• Deep and surface structure the form of a
  sentence we produce and understand is very often
  not the same as the basic form which shows its
  meaning (Nash 79) (also see Yule 102)
• A. Deep Structure the abstract, underlying
  level, but basic form of the sentence
• B. Surface Structure the superficial,
  syntactic form that we produce in reality
• e.g. old men and women
• e.g. Annie whacked a man with an umbrella. (Yule
  103)
• same surface structure form, two underlying
  interpretations (deep structures)
• Other examples
• Look! (Whats the subject? How do you know?)
• Help herself. (Whats wrong? How do you know?)

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Deep and Surface Structure (2)

• The runner broke the world record.// The world
  record was broken by the runner.
• Constituents relations remain the same. How do
  we know?
• To begin to answer questions like these, we first
  have to go to another idea
• the form of a sentence we produce and understand
  is very often not the same as the basic form
  which shows its meaning (Nash 79).

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Deep and Surface Structure (2)

• The form we produce is called the surface
  structure. The basic form is called the deep
  structure. We need the next step in TGG
  (Transformational-generative Grammar) to describe
  how the deep structure is changed into the
  surface structure.
• Transformational rules rules which describe
  these changes (see Yule 108 e.g.)

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Transformational-generative Grammar

• Transformational Generative Grammar
• (used to explain how deep structure ? surface
  structure)
• e.g.1. Imperative Transformation
• e.g.2. Reflexive Transformation and
• Imperative Transformation
• e.g.3. Passive Transformation
• e.g.4. Particle Movement

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Transformational-generative grammar

• Transformations processes that change the deep
  structure into surface structure.
• Generative using phrase structure rules, we can
  produce (generate) infinite sentences.
• E.g. 1 Surface Structure
• S
• NP VP
• V NP
• eat ART N
• the chou tofu

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Imperative Transformation

• Deep Structure
• S imperative
• NP VP transformation
• pro V NP
• ART N surface structure
• 
  (see slide 32)
• you eat the chou tofu

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Reflective Transformation

• E.g. 2 surface structure Help yourself!
• Deep Structure
• S S
• NP VP reflexive NP VP
• pro V NP transformation pro V NP
• pro (reflexive pro)
• you help you you help
  yourself
• (When two NPs in the same simple sentence are
  identical, convert the 2nd of the identical NPs
  into the corresponding reflexive pronoun I.e.,
  you ?yourself)

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Imperative Transformation

• S
• NP VP imperative
• Pro V NP transformation
• (reflexive pro)
  Help yourself
• You help yourself

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Important Criteria

• Transformation important criteria
• A. Some transformations are required some are
  optional.
• e.g. Help yourself!
• reflexive transformation is required.
• imperative transformation is optional.
• B. Transformation is in a certain order (when
  more than one is applied).
• 1. Reflective 2. imperative

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Passive Transformation

• E.g., 3
• Passive transformation
• NP1 V NP2 ? (changes it into)
• NP2 BE V-EN BY NP1
• e.g. The runner broke the world record. ?
• The world record was broken by the runner.
• 
  (Nash 82)

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Particle Movement

• E.g. 4 Particle movement
• NP Verb Particle NP ? NP Verb NP Particle
• Phrase structure tree diagram (see Yule 109)
• S
• NP VP
• V NP
• Vb part Art N
• Doobie picked up the
  magazine

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Transformational Process (1)

• In this process wont change the relationship
• and the meaning of the sentence
• 1. Combination e.g. You have Youve
• 2. Substitution e.g. You Yourself
• 3. Deletion e.g. You X (in
  imperatives)
• 4. Movement e.g. Puton Put on
• 5. Addition e.g. relative clause (skip this
  since too complicated)

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Transformational Process (2)

• Transformations never change the relations among
  elements/constituents (e.g., agent, receiver) in
  the deep structure, and they NEVER change
  (semantic) meaning.
• They are processes by which deep structures are
  converted into surface structures.

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Important Contribution of TGG

• The deepsurface structure idea a very
  important contribution.
• Not everything we know about a sentence is
  revealed in the actual form we producethe
  surface structure. We must look for deeper
  structural information.
• The farmer planted the rice.
• The rice was planted by the farmer.
• ? same meaning, though different structures.

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Problems of TGG

• 1. Theory is unwieldy. (too cumbersome, too
  clumsytoo many transformations)
• 2. Not universal (Its language specific, not
  conform to all languages).
• 3. Psychologically unreal (Semantics should be
  applied first, then comes the syntax)
  (Nash 83, summary)

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Language Ambiguity

• 1. Sentence/structural Ambiguity
• e.g. Visiting relatives can be a nuisance.
• 2. Word Ambiguity
• e.g. The man put his straw on the floor.

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Ambiguity

• Children are nice to understand.
• 1. Its nice for someone to understand children.
• 2. Its nice for children to understand
  something.
• D-structure
• Children are nice Ø to understand Ø
• D-structure
• Children are nice Ø to understand Ø

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D-Structure and S-Structure (1)

• Definition
• D-structurein which the basic order of
  phrases is represented.
• S-structurein which the actual linear order of
  phrases is observed deep
  structure positions of phrases are
  represented by empty categories.
• What will Frances drink Ø ?
• Drano, he drank Ø !

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D-Structure and S-Structure (2)

• Drano, he drank!
• This kind of sentence deviate from the normal
  order of sentences, but the invisible position is
  still there.
• In the surface structure, therere invisible
  positions, but they must be filled up in deep
  structure.
• Sentences that deviate from the basic word order
  are understood by reference to a more abstract
  structure in which the basic word order is
  represented ? D-structure

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D-Structure and S-Structure (3)

• The derivation of a sentence involves changing
  D-structure into S-structure, by moving elements
  from their D-structure positions the
  relationship between moved elements and their
  underlying position is represented by placing an
  identical index on the two. (e.g., NPi ti)

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• D-structure
• S
• S
• NP VP
• N V NP
• N
• he drank Drano

• S-structure
• S
• NPi S
• NP VP
• N N V NP
• Drano he drank ti
• T trace an inaudible copy of the moved NP is
  left in the D-structure position of the moved
  phrase

i identical index
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I inflection node a syntactic position
associated with some morphological features
(e.g., tense) and some auxiliary verbs, such as
modals

• D-structure
• S
• S
• NP I VP
• N V NP
• N
• Frances will drink what
• (Movement)

• S-structure
• S
• NPj S
• Willi S
• N
• NP I VP
• V NP
• What Frances ti drink tj

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TGG vs. UG

• TGG (Transformational Generative Grammar)
• The formulation of individual rules of grammar
• A great many transformational rules to convert
  (link) deep to surface structures
• UG (Universal Grammar)
• The formulation of general principles from which
  the properties of particular grammatical
  phenomena will follow
• Difference between D- and S-structure levels
  reduced to the results of a single general
  operation movement (what can move, and where to,
  are motivated and restricted by the principles of
  grammar).

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IV. Universal Grammar

• Definition
• a set of limits on the form of mental grammars.
  
• The limits on the form that human grammar can
  take
• Two kinds of limits
• 1. Principles invariant principles which
  dictate the form grammars can take. (will
  apply to every lang. in the same way, but
  details vary)
• 2. Parameters strictly defined possibilities of
  variation across languages. (There is limited
  number in choices)

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Principles (1)

• E.g. of principles subjacency
• No constituent can be moved over more than one
  bounding category
• Bounding category in Eng. S (sentence) NP
• A constraint on movement rules at the S-structure
  level
• A set of universal constraints on movement

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Principles (2)

• What did Sue destroy?
• What S did Sue destroy Ø
• What did Sue destroy a book about?
• s NP
• What did Sue destroy a book about Ø

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Principles (3)

• S
• (That all of us but you were upset) is obvious.
• S
• (That all of us were upset) but you is obvious.
• S S
• (That all of us were upset) is obvious but
  you.
• Subjacency principle an element can move only
  over one layer of structure that is, it can move
  only from a layer that is subordinate and
  adjacent.

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Principles (4)

• S S
• (John saw a horse) that kicked a box.
• S S
• (What did John see a horse) that kicked Ø?
• S
• What did John see a horse kick Ø?

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Parameters (1)

• Definition
• Any of the established limits within which
  something must operate. dictionary definition
• Strictly defined possibilities of variation
  across languages.
• A range of possibilities and languages choose
  within that range every language must set its
  parameters.
• Whats the difference between principles and
  parameters?

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Parameters (2)

• An example
• Pro-drop (an overt pronominal subject is
  dropped/optional) subjectless sentences
• English I am going to the cinema.
• Am going to the cinema.
• Spanish Yo voy al cine.
• voy al cine.
• Italian Io vado al cinema. (I go to the
  movies.)
• Vado al cinema.

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Parameters (3)

• More Spanish/Eng. examples
• A. Salieron a las ocho.
• Left at eight. (They left at eight.)
• B. LloviÓ mucho ayer.
• Rained a lot yesterday.
• (It rained a lot yesterday.)
• Free subject-verb inversion
• Han llegado mis estudiantes.
• Have arrived my students.
• (My students have arrived.)

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Parameters (4)

• pro-drop or pro-drop languages
• Spanish Italian
• Both are pro-drop languages.
• What about English?
• Chinese? Examples?
• ???!

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Conclusion (1)

• UG the linguistic system involves rules too
  abstract and complex to be learned without the
  aid of innate knowledge about the nature of the
  system . . . . The child is equipped with a set
  of blueprints that define and limit what a human
  language can be like.

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Conclusion (2)

• The child is assumed to be biologically equipped
  with knowledge of universal grammarthe basics of
  lang. structure. The child has blueprints for
  all the possible types of lang. in her head. In
  the course of lang. development she settles on
  the particular grammar of the language
  surrounding her.

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Conclusion (3)

• The primary role of UG in language development is
  to limit the hypotheses that a child can form
  concerning the rules of his language, thus also
  limiting errors and helping explain the speed and
  ease with which language is learned.