Motivation and Emotion

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Chapter 11

• Motivation and Emotion

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1. What are motives and motivation?

• Motives are reasons or purposes for behavior.
• Motivation includes influences that guide the
  starting, directing, and persistence of behavior
  as well as its intensity.

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2A. How are intervening variables helpful in
explaining behavior?

• an intervening variable  cannot be observed
  directly.
• it helps to account for relationship between
  stimuli (signals, objects, and events, people).
  and responses.
• IV's are used to explain why the same stimuli may
  result in different responses at different times.
  

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2B. How are intervening variables helpful in
explaining behavior?

• Motivation is an example of an intervening
  variable and helps explain why behavior changes
  over time.
• For example, why unhealthy lifestyles don't
  change until a crisis develops

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3A. What are 4 sources of motivation?

• (a)biological - need for food, water, air, sex,
  oxygen, temperature control and regulation. 
• (b) emotional - panic, anger, joy, love, and
  other emotions.

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3B. What are 4 sources of motivation?

• (c) cognitive - behavior influenced by what we
  think is possible and how we expect others to
  respond.
• (d) social - effects of other people and cultural
  factors

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4A. What are 4 theories to explain motivation?

• (a) instinct - automatic, involuntary reflex
  behavior.
• Released by certain stimuli.
• Includes fixed action patterns.

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• (b) drive reduction - based on the idea of
  homeostasis or maintaining a balance and
  equilibrium of body systems.
• Imbalance results in need or biological
  requirement for well-being.
• Need results in drive or state of arousal 
  prompting action to meet the need or reduce the
  drive.
• Primary drives are usually biologically-based.
• Secondary drives are usually learned.

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4B. What are 4 theories to explain motivation?

• (c) arousal - general level of activation in body
  systems such as  heart, other muscles, and brain
  is increased
• by biological drives such as hunger or thirst,
• loud or bright stimuli,
• surprising events
• or stimulant drugs.
• People are motivated by optimal arousal (increase
  if too low and decrease if too high).

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• (d) incentive - emphasizes external sources of
  motivation such as gaining positive outcomes and
  avoiding negative ones controlled  by external
  sources.

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5. What is the difference between intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation?

• Intrinsic motivation - desire to work hard and do
  well for internal satisfaction.
• Working for satisfaction of the process itself. 

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• Extrinsic motivation  - desire to receive
  external rewards such as money or grades
• and avoid negative  outcomes such as punishment.

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6. What is need for achievement?

• Specific motive to master tasks and do them well.
  
• Mastery seems to result in intense satisfaction.

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7A. What evidence is there for individual
differences in achievement motivation?

• People with high need for achievement establish
  challenging, difficult and realistic  goals.
• They pursue success and willing to take risks to
  succeed.
• They are satisfied is they succeed and are not
  bothered by failure.
• They emphasize performance and level of ability.
• They desire feedback and often prefer to struggle
  rather than ask for help.

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7B. What evidence is there for individual
differences in achievement motivation?

• People with low need for achievement prefer
  success.
• They experience relief at not failing rather than
  joy in achieving.
• They do not seek or desire feedback
• They respond to failure by quitting.

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8A. How does achievement motivation develop?

• Learned in early childhood, usually from parents.
  
• Parenting strategies can result in high
  achievement if parents
• (a) encourage children to attempt difficult and
  reachable goals,
• (b) offer praise for success,
• (c) encourage finding ways to succeed
• (d) prompt children to go on to the next
  challenge.

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8B. How does achievement motivation develop?

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• Cultural influences written material (print and
  electronic media) events and themes in stories
• Heroes and heroines may work hard and overcome
  obstacles rather than loaf or try to win the
  lottery.
• Influences after childhood -  effects of
  developing fantasies  about success in college
• Imagine difficult and achievable goals effects
  of encouraging a long-term perspective.

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9A. How do males and females differ in
achievement motivation?

• Women who have high achievement motivation act in
  more varied ways  than do men who have high
  achievement motivation.
• Some women dont establish challenging goals and
  give up when they experience failure.
• Gender differences appear at an early age.

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• Explanation associated with how boys and girls
  think of themselves.
• Girls are more likely than boys to attribute
  failure to lack of ability.

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9B. How do males and females differ in
achievement motivation?

• Gender differences seem to be influenced by how
  adults respond to the child's failure or success.
• Suggestion to think failure is due to lack of
  effort or some situational factor, results in
  developing challenging goals and will persist
  more often when experiencing failure.

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• Gender role stereotypes are maintained by the
  prevailing culture.
• For example, high-achieving women may be
  portrayed as unfeminine and threatening.

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10A. How are jobs and motivation related?

• Employers may be more interested in whether
  employees are motivated to do well on the job
  than in employees general level of achievement
  motivation.
• Managers often structure jobs in a way to show
  how they think employees are motivated.
• Managers who believe employees are lazy and
  untrustworthy may design jobs to be very
  structured and heavily supervised.
• Poor motivation among workers often results from
  little or no control over the work environment.

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10B. How are jobs and motivation related?

• High motivation with more satisfaction and higher
  productivity tend to result if managers
• (a) encourage workers to participate in decision
  making,
• (b) give employees problems to solve without
  solving them for the employees,
• (c) teach workers more than one skill,

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Higher motivation and productivity if

• (d) give individual responsibility,
• (e) give public recognition, not just money as
  rewards,
• (f) allow workers to set and achieve clear goals.
  

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10C. How are jobs and motivation related?

• Three characteristics of effective worker goals
• (a) specific and concrete
• (b) personally meaningful
• (c) management supports goal setting, rewards
  goal achievement, and gives encouragement after
  failure.

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11A. How does Maslow's motivational hierarchy
explain which motives guide a person's behavior?

• Proposed 5 basic classes of need or motives
  arranged in a hierarchy. 
• (a)biological - food, water, air, activity, and
  sleep
• (b)safety - security and being safe and cared
  for
• (c) belongingness and love - being part of a
  social group and giving and receiving affection

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Maslows motivation hierarchy

• (d) esteem - being respected as a useful and
  honorable person
• (e) self-actualization - developing your personal
  potential and being the "best that you can be"
  In general, more basic needs are satisfied first.
  

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11B. How does Maslow's motivational hierarchy
explain which motives guide a person's behavior?

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• Theory may be too simplistic.
• For example, some people will starve themselves
  in order to achieve a higher level goal.

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12A. How are motivational conflicts associated
with stress?

• In general, conflict among motives  can be source
  of distress and discomfort.
• Four types of conflict
• (a) approach-approach - choosing between two
  desirable goals
• (b) approach-avoidance when one activity has
  both positive and negative features

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Motivational conflict

• (c) avoidance-avoidance - choosing between two 
  undesirable events or outcomes
• (d)multiple approach-avoidance - when you are
  faced with 2 or more alternatives or outcomes,
  each of which having both pleasant and unpleasant
  characteristics.
• Last type is most difficult to resolve because of
  attributes of each options are difficult to
  compare.

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12B. How are motivational conflicts associated
with stress?

• Conflict is often associated with anxiety and
  other strong emotional states.
• Emotions can be very motivating.
• We often act in ways to gain happiness and
  pleasure as well as to avoid anxiety, anger, or
  sadness.

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13A. What are aspects of defining and describing
emotion?

• A) experiences rather than overt behaviors or
  specific thoughts
• result is often mixed and contradictory
  difficult to assign labels.
• B)have value or valence in the sense of positive
  or negative experience
• can change motivation.
• C) passions not actions
• happen to a person or take them by surprise
• not something you decide to experience.

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13B. What are aspects of defining and describing
emotion?

• D) influenced by interpretation emotions develop
  as a part of a situation
• triggered by thinking self and experienced as
  happening to the self
• E) accompanied by physical or bodily response
• partly reflex and partly learned
• internal or visceral responses are reflexive

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• F) vary in intensity
• from quiet to furious
• from mild to strong
• importance shown in people who show low emotional
  intensity and who dont get upset or experience
  much emotional pleasure.

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14A. What are aspects of how emotion is related
to the autonomic nervous system?

• autonomic nervous system is part of the
  peripheral nervous system carries information
  between the brain and organs and muscles, with
  the exception of the striated muscles
• modulates changes in ongoing activities of
  organs, both exciting and relaxing
• coordinates organ functioning to meet needs of
  whole organism and prepares the body to respond

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14B. What are aspects of how emotion is related
to the autonomic nervous system?

• two divisions of the ANS are the sympathetic and
  parasympathetic
• sympathetic prepares vigorous activity and
  produces increased heart rate and blood pressure,
  rapid or irregular breathing, dilated pupils,
  perspiration, dry mouth, increased blood sugar,
  goose bumps, trembling

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• parasympathetic system influences protection,
  nourishment, and growth
• increases digestive activity and movement in the
  intestinal tract.
• contributes to relaxation and growth

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15A. What are aspects of how lie detectors or
polygraph machines detect lying?

• polygraph consists of instruments that record 
  several types of physiological activity
• to detect lying, record physiological activity
  controlled by the sympathetic nervous system,
  including heart rate, respiration, and skin
  resistance
• based on idea that emotional responses accompany
  lying, such as feeling guilty and fearing
  exposure

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15B. What are aspects of how lie detectors or
polygraph machines detect lying?

• ask relevant and control questions
• expect stronger emotional response  to relevant
  questions
• no evidence that polygraph responses predict
  behavior
• accurate, reliable results are hard to get.

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16A. How does the James-Lange theory explain
emotion?

• Based on idea we feel emotions because of
  specific physiological responses.
• For example, we feel afraid because we run.
• Sequence of events perception of stimulus
  affects cerebral cortex, reflex response in
  muscle, skin, viscera/smooth muscles, conscious
  experience of emotion.

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16B. How does the James-Lange theory explain
emotion?

• Belief that reflexive physical response precedes
  emotional experience.
• Conscious experience comes later.
• May be one reason why we have difficulty knowing
  true feelings.
• We may interpret feelings from physical responses

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17A. How does the Cannon-Bard theory explain
emotion?

• Experience of emotion originates in brain/CNS.
• Subconscious experience in the brain results in
  simultaneous stimulation of ANS and the cerebral
  (conscious) cortex.
• Interpretation of emotion results from signals
  from inside the brain.

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17B. How does the Cannon-Bard theory explain
emotion?

• Evidence for C-B theory emotion occurs by
  activating specific parts of the CNS
• different parts of the CNS may be activated for
  different emotions (pain and pleasure centers)
  and different aspects of total emotional
  experience.

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18A. How does the Schachter-Singer theory explain
emotion?

• Related to idea of how interpretation affects
  emotional experience.
• Reflects a combination of James-Lange and
  Cannon-Bard.
• Agrees with J-L that emotional experience results
  from perceiving physiological response feedback.
• Agrees with C-B that physiological response alone
  is not different enough to reflect subtle
  emotional experience.

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18B. How does the Schachter-Singer theory explain
emotion?

• Proposes that emotions result from both
  physiological response feedback and cognitive
  appraisal.
• Cognitive interpretation has two influences
• (a) perception of stimulus and
• (b) identification of ANS response.

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19A. What is transfer of excitation?

• Physiological  arousal can be attributed to
  emotion and can intensify  emotional experience
  regardless of arousal source.
• Transferred excitation when arousal from
  experience carries over to another independent or
  unrelated situation. 
• Based on idea that we remain aroused longer than
  we think (increased blood pressure and
  respiration at subconscious level).
• Transfer occurs when overt arousal symptoms have
  subsided and sympathetic nervous system is still
  active.

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19B. What is transfer of excitation?

• Example if activated by exercise and feel calm,
  is easy to attribute arousal to emotion such as
  attraction.
• Transfer especially likely when excitement from a
  non-emotional source is similar to arousal
  associated with a particular emotion.
• Arousal from one emotion then intensifies the
  second emotion.
• For example, arousal from fear or anger can
  enhance sexual feelings.

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20A. What conclusions can be made concerning the
relationship between emotion and autonomic
nervous system responses?

• Both physical or ANS response and cognitive
  interpretation of responses influence emotional
  experience.
• There seems to be direct experience of emotion in
  the CNS, aside from ANS arousal.
• Emotion is likely in both heart (ANS) and head
  (cerebral cortex or CNS).

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20B. What conclusions can be made concerning the
relationship between emotion and autonomic
nervous system responses?

• No resolution of which emotional component, if
  either is primary or more important.

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21A. What are aspects of how we communicate
emotion?

• Innate expression of emotion refers to idea that
  how we express emotion is influenced by heredity.
  
• Darwin believed facial expressions to be
  universal and biologically determined.
• Two types of evidence support Darwins ideas
• (a) from infants who show unlearned facial
  expression of emotion, including blind babies and
  those with normal vision.
• (b) for basic emotions, people of all cultures
  show similar facial responses to similar
  emotional stimuli.

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21B. What are aspects of how we communicate
emotion?

• Communicative value of emotional expressions
  depends on context
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• Social referencing refers to uncertain
  situations in which other individuals provide a
  reference or guide that decreases uncertainty as
  how to respond.
• Infants depend on adults  emotional expressions,
  such as in the visual cliff.

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21C. What are aspects of how we communicate
emotion?

• Communication through emotional facial expression
  may explain why some behaviors are considered
  biologically "wired-in"  such as in babies' fear
  of strangers.
• Emotional culture includes rules governing which
  emotional are acceptable in which situations and
  which emotions  expressions are not acceptable.

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• These classifications vary from culture to
  culture, across time in a single culture, and
  within an individuals lifetime.

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22A. What are explanations of how we express
emotion?

• Relationship between the brain hemispheres may be
  important in suppressing emotion.
• Communication between brain hemispheres may
  influence this ability.
• Evidence from infants infants do not inhibit
  emotional expression and also have less
  well-developed functional connections between the
  hemispheres.

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• Until age 19 or 20, corpus callosum is not fully
  myelinated or covered with fatty sheath that
  speeds neural activity.
• Differences in hemispheric communication may be
  partly responsible for differences in ability to
  suppress emotional expression.

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22B. What are explanations of how we express
emotion?

• Possibly suppression of negative emotion related
  to stopping communication between right
  hemisphere where negative emotions are generated
  and verbal areas in left hemisphere.
• People who suppress emotion ANS response may
  experience disconnection from ability to report
  emotions.
• The ANS activity increases but the person reports
  little or no emotion.

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23A. How are psychological disorders related to
the emotion of fear?

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• Panic Disorder experience of intense fear in
  situation where there is nothing to be afraid of.
  
• 3 components
• (a) panic attack - physical symptoms, including
  heart rate, breathing, blood pressure, body
  temperature.
• (b) chronic anxiety about whether an attack will
  occur involves emotions and thoughts.
• (c) avoidance behaviors aimed at preventing
  future attacks.

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23B. How are psychological disorders related to
the emotion of fear?

• Proposal panic disorder patients have
  hyper-sensitive brainstem mechanisms regulating
  ANS response contributing to fear
• other information from PETT scans before panic
  attacks, increased abnormal symmetry of blood
  flow (more to right hemisphere)
• during panic attack, brain activity similar to
  that of people with anxiety anticipating painful
  experience.
• Appearance of unexplained physiological arousal
  may set the stage for panic.

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23C. How are psychological disorders related to
the emotion of fear?

• Cognitive interpretation of symptoms can
  determine whether an attack develops.
• Research shows that people who experience the
  illusion of control are less likely to experience
  full panic attack.
• Conclusion process of interpreting and coping
  with symptoms gives cognitive aspects  important
  role in controlling panic disorders.

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Chapter 13

• Health, Stress and Coping

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1A. What is stress?

• Definition - process of adjusting to or dealing
  with situations that disrupt or threaten your
  physical or psychological well-being and
  functioning.
• In general, involves relationships between people
  and the environment.

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• Specifically involves relationship between
  stressors, stress responses, and mediating
  factors.

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Stress components

• Stressors events or situations that we respond 
  or react to.
• Stress responses physical, psychological, and
  behavioral responses to stressors.
• Mediating factors  circumstances and personal
  characteristics
• specifically, predictability, control, social
  support, and coping strategies.

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2A. What are 6 major psychosocial stressors and
examples of each?

• (a)frustration - obstacle standing between you
  and your goals
• being unable to earn a decent living, failing to
  establish a close and loving relationship.

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• (b)pressure - require you to do too much in too
  little time
• preparing a dinner for 20 on one day's notice
• writing 2 complete essay question responses in 10
  minutes.

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• (c)boredom or under-stimulation - opposite of
  pressure
• lecture or activity not interesting to you
• solitary confinement
• guard duty in a remote location
• lack of interest in what is going on around you.

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2B. What are 6 major psychosocial stressors and
examples of each?

• (d) trauma - shocking physical or psychological
  or emotional experience examples - rape,
  military combat, severe storm, fire, torture.

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• (e) conflict - having to make a choice between
• two attractive options,
• two unattractive options,
• one attractive and one unattractive option
• several options each with both attractive and
  unattractive characteristics,

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• (f)change
• examples divorce, unemployment, and illness.

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3. How is stress commonly measured?

• Related to number of life changes we have
  experienced.
• Based on assumption that any and all change 
  (both positive and negative) can be stressful and
  distressing.
• People are asked to rate a list of change-related
  stressors in terms of life-change units (amount
  of change and demand for adjustment a stressor
  introduces).

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4. What is the general adaptation syndrome?

• G.A.S. a sequence of physical responses
  triggered in response to any stressor.
• Has three stages
• --?(a)alarm reaction - some version of the flight
  or fight syndrome.
• Example - may be change in heart rate, blood
  pressure, respiration, or body temperature.

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• --?(b)resistance - body settles in to resist the
  stressor on a long-term basis.
• Slower drain on body resources than alarm
  reaction.
• Body still working very hard to produce emergency
  energy.
• Uses up body's reserves of adaptive energy.

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• --?(c) Exhaustion - body no longer able to resist
  the stressor(s).
• Associated with signs of physical wear and tear.
• Can result in illness such as heart disease, high
  blood pressure, arthritis, colds, flu.
• May end in death.

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5A. What are 2 psychological stress responses?

• (a) emotional - may be anxiety, anger,
  aggression
• --?usually occurs in response to identifiable
  situations
• --?usually subsides when stressors removed
• --?may be associated with generalized anxiety if
  constant emotional arousal becomes routine.

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• (b) cognitive - decreased ability to concentrate,
  think clearly, remember accurately
• --?For example, catastrophizing or dwelling on
  and overemphasizing the potential negative
  consequences of unpleasant events
• --?interfering with thinking and may intensify
  emotional  and physical responses.

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5B. What are 2 psychological stress responses?

• Defense mechanisms
• --?denial or saying to yourself that it's not
  happening
• --?repression/forgetting
• --?rationalization or finding a reason

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Defense mechanisms

• --?intellectualization or emotional detachment
• --?displacement or finding a safe target to
  express emotion
• --?projection or attributing one's own
  undesirable  qualities to another person.

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6. What are behavioral stress responses?

• changes in how people look, act, or talk in
  response to stressors
• examples facial expressions, voice tone,
  trembling, jumpiness, posture
• observable responses that allow us to express and
  communicate how we are feeling and thinking.

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7. How do predictability and control influence
the experience of stress?

• predictable stressors have lower impact,
  especially if they dont last very long.
• Controlled stressors have lower impact than
  uncontrolled stressors
• Believing you have little or no control may
  increase the unpleasant impact of stressors.

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8A. How do social support and coping skills
influence the experience of stress?

• (a)social support - resources provided by other
  people, friends, and social contacts
• --?can take different forms, including giving
  assistance and buffering impact
• --?helps us to feel less anxious and more in
  control
• --?ability to cope sometimes influences quality
  of social support received too much support can
  be as bad as too little

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8B. How do social support and coping skills
influence the experience of stress?

• (b) coping skills represent ability to solve
  problems and deal with stressors
• 3 categories 
• --?(1)appraisal-focused in which we think about
  stressors as challenges rather than threats
• ----?planning what to do

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• --?(2) problem-focused in which we change or
  eliminate the stressor by seeking help or using
  planning strategies
• ----?use in situations you can change or have an
  effect

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• --?(3) emotion-focused in which we control
  negative emotions by using calm thoughts or
  emotional detachment
• ----?does nothing to solve the problem(s) use in
  situations you can't change immediately.

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9A. How is stress related to physical illness?

• Early research has identified various diseases
  associated with excessive arousal of the
  sympathetic nervous system.
• Examples include asthma, high blood pressure,
  ulcers, migraine headaches.

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• Recent research has established a connection
  between stress and any physical illness.
• --?Example is Alzheimer's Disease, associated
  with severe memory loss
• --?too much stress may result in premature death
  of brain cells in areas of brain responsible for
  memory.

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9B. How is stress related to physical illness?

• Stress also associated with coronary heart
  disease.
• Type A behavior (intensely competitive,
  aggressive, impatient, hostile, nonstop worker
• need to control events and the environment.)
• Stress also associated with cancer risk.

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10A. What are steps in developing a plan to cope
with stress?

• (a)systematic assessment of the problem
• --? identify the source of the stress
• --?list events and situations containing conflict
  and change.
• --?note physical and psychological effects of
  stress, including headache, lack of
  concentration, excessive substance use.

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• (b) select appropriate goals
• --?decide whether to eliminate stressors or
  change your response to them

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• (c)planning
• --?list specific steps of actions to take.

90
10B. What are steps in developing a plan to cope
with stress?

• (d) action
• --?put plans into action, using stress coping
  strategies.

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• (e) evaluation
• --?determine changes resulting from stress-coping
  methods and decide what worked and what didn't-t.
  

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• (f) adjustment
• --?change coping methods and strategies to
  improve results if necessary.

93
11A. What are 3 type of stress coping strategies
and examples of each type?

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• (a) cognitive strategies
• --?changing how you interpret stressors
• --?help people think more calmly, rationally and
  constructively under stress
• --?cognitive restructuring or substituting more
  effective thought patterns for catastrophic
  thinking
• --?results in lower threat and disruption
  potential of stressors.

94
11B. What are 3 type of stress coping strategies
and examples of each type?

• (b) behavioral
• --?rearranging the environment to minimize impact
  of stressors
• --?one example is more effective time management
  
• --?keep track of how you use your time for a
  week.
• --?start a time management plan

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• --?shows you relative amounts of free time and
  planned time
• --?can help control catastrophic thinking
• --?gives visual reassurance
• --?another example is paying attention to total
  stressor load and acting to restrict it by using
  a rational coping plan rather than impulsive
  decision making.

96
11C. What are 3 type of stress coping strategies
and examples of each type?

• (c) physical strategies
• --?directly change physiological responses
  before, during, or after encountering
  stressor(s)
• --?Can be chemical or nonchemical.
• ----?Chemical strategies may involve prescribed
  or nonprescribed substances
• ----

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• ?appropriate in some cases
• ----?may provide temporary relief
• ----?long-term use can lead to other problems
  such as addiction, family or marital
  difficulties
• ----?can result in attributing coping ability to
  the drug or substance and not your own skills and
  abilities.

98
D11. What are 3 type of stress coping strategies
and examples of each type?

• Non-chemical coping includes
• progressive muscles relaxation,
• physical exercise,
• and biofeedback.

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CHAPTER 14

• PERSONALITY

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1A. WHAT IS PERSONALITY AND HOW CAN WE STUDY IT?

• lasting pattern of psychological and behavioral
  characteristics used to compare and contrast one
  person with another.

101

• three methods to study personality
• --?a. observation - watching the behavior of
  individuals  

102

• --? b. interview - series of questions about how
  you think, feel, and act
• ----?may refer to past, present, or future can
  be changed to fit special needs of individuals.
• ----?may use open-ended or closed-ended questions

103
1B. WHAT IS PERSONALITY AND HOW CAN WE STUDY IT?

• --?c. tests - standardized and economical
• ----?should meet standards of reliability and
  validity

104

• ----?objective/written and contains specific
  questions with predetermined response choices
• examples MBTI, 16PF, MMPI

105

• ----?projective/more unstructured
• ----?wide range of interpretations and responses
  
• scoring may be more unreliable than for objective
  tests.
• examples Rorschach, TAT

106
2A. WHAT IS THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH TO
STUDYING PERSONALITY?

• psychic determinism - personality depends more on
  emotional and cognitive factors than biological
  factors or external events
• people usually aren't aware of why they think,
  act, or feel in certain ways
• personality is mostly unconsciously controlled.

107
2B. WHAT IS THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH TO
STUDYING PERSONALITY?

• methods
• free associationsaying whatever comes to your
  mind reveals unconscious material.
• psychoanalysisgeneral name for Freud's theory
  of personality, research methods and therapy
  techniques.

108
2C. WHAT IS THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH TO
STUDYING PERSONALITY?

• structure of personality
• 3 major components
• IDall basic drives, needs, impulses, motives
  seeks
• immediate satisfaction of needs and wants
• operates on the pleasure principle

109

• EGOdevelops from id
• as we learn to cope with reality
• responsible for organizing strategies to get
  what we want
• operates according to the reality principle
  (compromises between demands of id and
  restrictions of the outside world

110

• SUPEREGOdevelops as we learn and adopt rules  of
  the external world
• ego ideal pressure to conform to standards of
  ideal behavior
• includes conscience (shoulds and should nots
• operates according to the morality principle
  (knowing the difference between right and
  wrong).

111
2D. WHAT IS THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH TO
STUDYING PERSONALITY?

• conflicts and defenses - conflict results from
  interaction among id, ego, and superego
• most of what is unconscious is frightening or
  socially unacceptable so we try to avoid
  awareness of it
• we experience anxiety or fear when unconscious
  material threatens to become conscious

112
2E. WHAT IS THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH TO
STUDYING PERSONALITY?

• anxiety may be unhealthy
• feeling afraid when there is actually nothing to
  fear or
• Anxiety may be moral
• experienced when feel guilty about behavior
  forbidden by the superego

113
2E. WHAT IS THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH TO
STUDYING PERSONALITY?

• ego resolves conflicts in several ways
• including realistic actions
• or defense mechanisms

114
3. HOW DOES THE INTERPERSONAL CIRCLE RELATE TO
STUDYING AND DESCRIBING PERSONALITY?

• consists of 2 main dimensions concerning how we
  act with other people
• power dominance vs. submission
• affiliation love vs. hate

115

• all behavior is a result of some combination of
  high or low power and high or low affiliation
• predicts mild and extreme versions of different
  types of behavior

116
3B. HOW DOES THE INTERPERSONAL CIRCLE RELATE TO
STUDYING AND DESCRIBING PERSONALITY?

• results in 8 styles of behavior
• managerial/autocratic vs self-effacing/masochistic
  ,
• responsible/hypernomal vs rebellious/distrustful,

117

• cooperative/overconventional vs
  aggressive/sadistic,
• docile/dependent vs competitive/narcissistic

118

• operates according to the rule of
  COMPLEMENTARITY people encourage behavior in
  others, compatible to the behavior offered
• dominant behavior encourages submissive behavior
  
• hate encourages hate, while love encourages love.

119
4. WHAT IS THE DISPOSITIONAL APPROACH TO
STUDYING PERSONALITY?

• based on descriptive categories or labels for
  personality
• may refer to types, traits, factors or needs

120

• 3 assumptions
• 1)everyone has stable disposition/tendency to
  think, act, feel in certain ways
• 2) dispositions appear in different situations
  and explain why people act predictably in certain
  situations
• 3) each person has a different set of
  dispositions of varying strengths.

121
4. WHAT IS THE DISPOSITIONAL APPROACH TO STUDYING
PERSONALITY?

• types - category or group
• applies in all situations
• for example shy vs outgoing, feeling vs thinking
• traits - characteristics you possess in certain
  amounts or strengths

122
4A. WHAT IS THE DISPOSITIONAL APPROACH TO
STUDYING PERSONALITY?

• factors - collections/groups of traits
• psychoticism cruelty, coldness, hostility,
  oddness, rejects social customs
• extraversion social, outgoing, likes parties,
  takes risks, likes excitement

123

• introversion quiet, thoughtful, reserved,
  prefers to be alone, avoids excitement
• emotional stability calm, even-tempered,
  relaxed emotional instability moody, restless,
  easily worried or anxious

124
4A. WHAT IS THE DISPOSITIONAL APPROACH TO
STUDYING PERSONALITY?

• openness
• active imagination,
• sensitive to sights and sounds,
• intellectually curious,
• receptive to different experiences

125

• openness
• contrasts with being conventional,
• down to earth,
• narrow interests,
• non-artistic,
• uncreative

126

• conscientiousness
• persistent in accomplishing valued tasks,
• reliable,
• dependable vs lax,
• aimless,
• unreliable.

127
5A. WHAT IS THE BEHAVIORAL APPROACH TO STUDYING
PERSONALITY?

• personality is made up of behavior patterns
• specific behavior is a sample
• personality is determined by learning
  experiences, especially in interpersonal
  interactions

128

• consistent history results in stable behavior
  patterns
• inconsistent behaviors explained by specific
  situational experiences

129
5B. WHAT IS THE BEHAVIORAL APPROACH TO STUDYING
PERSONALITY?

• 2 main versions of behavioral approach
• operant emphasizes influences of reward and
  punishment from external environment

130

• cognitive involves social learning
• includes learned thoughts, emotions, and
  behaviors
• related to self-efficacy
• learned expectations of success (belief that
  person can perform behavior regardless of past
  failures and current obstacles.

131
6A. WHAT IS THE PHENOMENOLOGICAL APPROACH TO
STUDYING PERSONALITY?

• belief that the specific way each individual
  perceives and interprets the world influences
  personality and guides behavior 
• focuses on mental qualities of humans
  (consciousness, creativity, self-awareness,
  planning, decision-making, responsibility)

132

• also called humanistic view
• emphasizes how the individual actively constructs
  his own world rather than being a passive carrier
  of traits
• main human motivation is toward
  self-actualization and personal growth

133
6B. WHAT IS THE PHENOMENOLOGICAL APPROACH TO
STUDYING PERSONALITY?

• also called humanistic view
• emphasizes how the individual actively constructs
  his own world rather than being a passive carrier
  of traits
• main human motivation is toward
  self-actualization and personal growth

134
6C. WHAT IS THE PHENOMENOLOGICAL APPROACH TO
STUDYING PERSONALITY?

• CARL ROGERS - developed idea of self-concept
  (part of individual's experience identified as
  "i" or "me"
• personality is expression of self-actualizing
  tendency
• importance of unconditional positive regard for
  healthy development of personality.

135
6D. WHAT IS THE PHENOMENOLOGICAL APPROACH TO
STUDYING PERSONALITY?

• ABRAHAM MASLOW
• agreed with Carl Rogers about basic tendency 
  toward growth and self-actualization
• believed self-actualization is a human need

136

• proposed a hierarchy of needs
• highest need is self-actualization
• lower needs (physiological survival, safety,
  love/belonging, recognition) distract us from
  self-actualization

137
7A. HOW ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF BEING
STRESS-PRONE OR DISEASE-PRONE RELATED TO
PERSONALITY?

• certain personality characteristics may protect a
  person from stress or illness

138

• HARDY PERSONALITY
• commitment strong involvement in personal values
  and goals
• control belief in own ability to cope with
  problems
• challenge perceive problems as opportunities
  rather than threats

139
7B. HOW ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF BEING
STRESS-PRONE OR DISEASE-PRONE RELATED TO
PERSONALITY?

• related to self-efficacy (dispositional optimism
  and persistent long term belief that most events
  will turn out well
• health and adjustment related to whether person
  is positive about self-efficacy
• may experience better psychological and physical
  health if slightly exaggerate  personal power,
  blame outcomes on external events, and deny own
  faults

140
7C. HOW ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF BEING
STRESS-PRONE OR DISEASE-PRONE RELATED TO
PERSONALITY?

• some characteristics seem related to being
  vulnerable to illness
• negative feelings cynicism, perceived
  helplessness, frustration, lack of control
• depression/anxiety/hostility related to asthma,
  headaches, arthritis, ulcers
• toxic type-a behavior related to coronary heart
  disease, negative emotions, difficulty expressing
  negative feelings

141

• contrast with charismatic type-a
• fast-moving,
• involved with work,
• internal locus of control,
• emotionally expressive,
• high-achieving outcomes,
• focused and motivated for success.

142
IN CONCLUSION

• ARE THERE ANY QUESTIONS ABOUT ANYTHING WE HAVE
  DISCUSSED ?