Teori Komunikasi Keorganisasian

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Teori Komunikasi Keorganisasian

• KOC 3232
• Dr. Hamisah Zaharah Hasan hamisah_at_fbmk.upm.edu.my

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Objektif

• Pada akhir kursus ini pelajar akan dapat
• Menerangkan asal-usul teori dalam komunikasi
  keorganisasian
• Menghuraikan teori berkaitan komunikasi
  keorganisasian
• Mengaitkan kepentingan memahami teori dalam
  komunikasi keorganisasian

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Sinopsis

• Kursus ini merangkumi teori komunikasi organisasi
  dalam pendekatan klasikal dan saintifik teori
  dalam pendekatan hubungan kemanusiaan, teori
  dalam pendekatan kontemporari iaitu pendekatan
  kritikal. Bentuk dan kandungan komunikasi dalam
  pendekatan tersebut dan implikasi teori kepada
  komunikasi keorganisasian.

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Penilaian Kursus

• Ujian 30
• Tugasan Kumpulan 30
• Peperiksaan Akhir 40

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Rujukan

• Byres, P.Y. 1997. Organizational
  communicationstheory and behavior. BostonAllyn
  Bacon
• Eisenberg,E.M. Goodall Jr.,H.L.1997.
  Organizational communicationBalancing creativity
  and constraint.(2nd ed.). NYSt. Martins
• Miller,K. 1999. Organizational communication.
  Approaches and processes. (2nd ed.). Belmont,
  CAWadsworth
• Neher, W.W. 1997. Organizational communication
  challenges of charge, diversity, and continuity.
  Boston Allyn Bacon.

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Tugasan Berkumpulan (30 )

• Pilih satu Drama TV yang popular dewasa ini.
  Senaraikan 5 ciri pekerja dalam organisasi
  seperti yang dibincangkan oleh teori X and Y yang
  terdapat dalam drama tersebut. Terangkan secara
  ringkas 5 ciri yang disenaraikan itu.

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• Tugasan ini perlu disempurnakan secara
  berkumpulan. Rujuk cara penulisan yang
  menggunakan gaya penulisan APA. Tugasan hendaklah
  bertaip langkau dua menggunakan font 12 poin
  Arial atau Times New Roman dengan tidak melebihi
  5 halaman. Tugasan perlu diserahkan pada tarikh
  perjumpaan bersemuka kedua. Tugasan yang lewat
  tidak akan diterima.

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TeoriKeorganisasianKlasikal
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Idea utamateori keorganisasian klasikal

• Terdapat satu cara terbaik melaksanakan tugas
• (There is one best way to perform a task)

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Terhasil daripada dua perspektif

• Pengurusan saintifik fokus terhadap pengurusan
  kerja dan pekerja
• Pengurusan pentadbiran menekankan isu berkaitan
  bagaimana keseluruhan struktur organisasi perlu
  dibentuk

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Penyumbang utama terhadap pembentukan teori
tersebut

• Pengurusan saintifik
• Frederick Taylor
• Pengurusan pentadbiran
• Henri Fayol
• Luther Halsey Gulick
• Max Weber

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Frederick Taylor

• Taylor dilahirkan di Pennsylvania pada 20 March
  1856
• Tamat pengajian di Eropah, bercadang untuk
  memasuki universiti Harvard, namun gagal ujian
  kemasukan.
• Taylor kemudian bertugas di syarikat mengeluarkan
  pump di Philadelphia
• Beliau kemudian mengikuti pengajian kejuruteraan
  mekanikal di Stevens, dan tamat dalam masa hanya
  tiga tahun.

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Midvale Steel Company

• Taylor mula bertugas di Midvale steel Company
  pada 1878.
• Berjaya melipat-gandakan produktiviti
  pekerja-pekerjanya dan dinaik pangkat kepada
  foreman
• Mulai mengkaji mengenai produktiviti sebagai satu
  cara mengukur pengeluaran.
• Kemudian dilantik menjadi Ketua Jurutera di
  Midvale.

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Pencapaian

• Mereka sistem untuk memaksimumkan kerja yang
  efisyen dari pekerja dan mesin.
• Fokus terhadap kajian mengenai masa dan
  pergerakan dan bagaimana menyelesaikan tugas
  dalam jangkamasa yang singkat.
• Menjadi Jurutera Perunding kepada beberapa
  syarikat.
• Menulis The Principles of Scientific Management

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Prinsip Utama Pengurusan Saintifik

• Analisis tugas secara saintifik pemerhatian,
  pengumpulan data dan pengukuran yang betul untuk
  mengenalpasti cara terbaik melaksanakan setiap
  tugas.
• Pemilihan personnel pemilihan secara saintifik
  dan dilatih, ajar, serta bentuk sebagai pekerja.
• Kerjasama Pengurusan pengurus perlu bekerjasama
  dengan pekerja untuk memastikan semua kerja
  dijalankan mengikut prinsip saintifik yang
  dibentuk.
• Penyeliaan fungsional pengurus bertindak untuk
  merancang, menguruskan, membuat keputusan
  sementara pekerja pula tugas mereka ialah
  bekerja.

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Henri Fayol

• Jurutera dan Pengusaha Peranchis
• Bertugas sebagai Pengarah Urusan sebuah
  organisasi yang terbabit dalam perlombongan.
• Mementingkan prinsip pengurusan daripada
  personaliti individu.
• Fayol adalah orang pertama mengenalpasti
  pengurusan sebagai proses penilaian berterusan.

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5 Fungsi Pengurusan Fayol

• Peranan utama pengurus
• Perancangan
• Pengurusan
• Mengarah
• Mengkoordinasi
• Mengawal
• Terdapat 14 prinsip tambahan yang diperkenalkan
  Fayol

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14 Prinsip Fayol

1. Pembahagian Tugas memperbaikki efisiensi dengan
   mengurangkan pembaziran, meningkatkan output, dan
   memudahkan latihan tugas.
2. Kuasa dan Tanggungjawab kuasa hak untuk
   memberi arahan dan kuasa terhadap mendapatkan
   ketaatan Tanggungjawab Tanggungjawab
   menjalankan tugas.
3. Disiplin hormat peraturan organisasi

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• 4. Keunggulan arahan pekerja hanya perlu diarah
  oleh satu ketua sahaja.
• 5. Keunggulan arah mengelompokkan tugas yang
  sama untuk dibawah arahan satu pengurus.
• 6. Tidak mementingkan faedah individu tetapi
  penekanan faedah organisasi tidak boleh beri
  keutamaan kepada kepentingan individu daripada
  organisasi
• 7. Pembayaran kepada kakitangan bayaran yang
  adil dan memuaskan kepada semua kakitangan.
• 8. Pemusatan tugas Tanggungjawab kepada pengurus
  pekerja melaksanakan tugas.

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• 9. Rantaian skalar (Line of authority) Arahan
  dari pengurusan atasan kepada pekerja bawahan.
• 10. Susunan Kedudukan yang teratur antara
  pekerja dan peralatan.
• 11.Equiti Layanan pengurus kepada pekerja mesti
  adil dan saksama.
• 12. Kestabilan jawatan pembentukan kestabilan
  jawatan untuk mengelakkan komitment yang rendah
  daripada pekerja.
• 13.Inisiatif pekerja perlu digalakkan untuk
  memberi pandangan yang membina.
• 14. Esprit de Corps pembentukan semangat
  kerjasama, kerja dalam kumpulan, dan kesatuan
  pekerja.

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Luther Halsey Gulick(1892-1992)

• Pakar kewangan dan pentadbiran munisipal
• Bertugas di Institute of Public Administration,
  professor of municipal science and administration
  at Columbia, dan juga komiti dalam pentadbiran
  Franklin D. Roosevelt.
• Mengembangkan prinsip Fayol kepada 7 prinsip

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1. Perancangan Menggariskan pencapaian dan kaedah
   untuk pencapaian tersebut.
2. Penyusunan membentuk struktur autoriti formal
   menerusi pembahagian tugas yang dirancang,
   difahami, dan dikoordinasikan dalam pelan.
3. Penstafan - memilih dan melatih staf dan
   memastikan environment kerja yang kondusif.
4. Pengarahan tanggungjawab dlm membuat keputusan,
   mengkomunikasikan dan mengimplementasikan
   keputusan serta menjalankan penilaian pekerja
   bawahan yang adil.

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• Pengkoordinasian segala kegiatan dan usaha
  adalah untuk menyatukan organisasi ke arah
  mencapai objektif yang sama.
• Rekod kejayaan direkodkan untuk memastikan
  kelemahan dapat diperbaikki.
• Belanjawan setiap aktiviti yang hendak
  dijalankan perlu menyediakan bajet.

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Max Weber(1864-1920)

• German sociologist
• Weber first describes the concept of bureaucracy
  an ideal form of organizational structure
• He defines bureaucratic administration as the
  exercise of control on the basis of knowledge
• Weber states, Power is principally exemplified
  within organizations by the process of control

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• Weber uses and defines the terms authority and
  power as
• Power any relationship within which one person
  could impose his will, regardless of any
  resistance from the other.
• Authority existed when there was a belief in the
  legitimacy of that power.

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• Weber classifies organizations according to the
  legitimacy of their power and uses three basic
  classifications
• Charismatic Authority based on the sacred or
  outstanding characteristic of the individual.
• Traditional Authority essentially a respect for
  customs.
• Rational Legal Authority based on a code or set
  of rules.

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• Weber recognizes that rational legal authority is
  used in the most efficient form of organization
  because
• A legal code can be established which can claim
  obedience from members of the organization
• The law is a system of abstract rules which are
  applied to particular cases and administration
  looks after the interests of the organization
  within the limits of that law.

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• The manager or the authority additionally follows
  the impersonal order
• Membership is key to law obedience
• Obedience is derived not from the person
  administering the law, but rather to the
  impersonal order that installed the persons
  authority

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• Weber outlined his ideal bureaucracy
• as defined by the following parameters
• A continuous system of authorized jobs maintained
  by regulations
• Specialization encompasses a defined sphere of
  competence, based on its divisions of labor
• A stated chain of command of offices a
  consistent organization of supervision based on
  distinctive levels of authority

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• Rules an all encompassing system of directives
  which govern behavior rules may require training
  to comprehend and manage
• Impersonality no partiality, either for or
  against, clients, workers, or administrators
• Free selection of appointed officials equal
  opportunity based on education and professional
  qualification

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• Full-time paid officials only or major
  employment paid on the basis of position
• Career officials promotion based on seniority
  and merit designated by supervisors
• Private/Public split separates business and
  private life
• The finances and interests of the two should be
  kept firmly apart the resources of the
  organization are quite distinct from those of the
  members as private individuals.

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• A tendency to a leveling of social classes by
  allowing a wide range of recruits with technical
  competence to be taken by any organization
• (b) Elite status because of the time required to
  achieve the necessary technical training
• (c) Greater degree of social equality due to the
  dominance of the spirit of impersonality or
  objectivity

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Webers Theory of Bureaucracy

• Tenets of Bureaucracy
• Rules
• Specified sphere of competence
• Hierarchy
• Specialized Training
• Workers do not own technology
• No entitlement to official position by
  incumbent
• Everything written down
• Maintenance of ideal type - bureaucracy

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Webers Theory of Bureaucracy

• Concerned with describing the ideal structure of
  an organization
• Cornerstone existence of written rules
• The rational application of written rules ensures
  the promotion of legitimate authority and the
  effective and efficient functioning of the
  organization.

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Webers Theory of Bureaucracy

• Application in the Modern Workplace
• Large organizations guided by countless rules are
  bureaucracies
• Linked with inefficient, slow-moving
  organizations
• Organizations have several characteristics of
  bureaucracies

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Common Criticisms of Classical Organizational
Theory

• Classical principles of formal organization may
  lead to a work environment in which
• Employees have minimal power over their jobs and
  working conditions
• Subordination, passivity and dependence are
  expected
• work to a short term perspective
• Employees are lead to mediocrity
• Working conditions produce to psychological
  failure as a result of the belief that they are
  lower class employees performing menial tasks

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SUMMARY

• Classical Theories of Organizations (p. 36)
• Taylors Theory of Scientific Management
• Fayols Administrative Theory
• Webers Theory of Bureaucracy
• All 3 theories attempt to enhance managements
  ability to predict and control the behavior of
  their workers
• Considered only the task function of
  communication (ignored relational and maintenance
  functions of communication)
• Designed to predict and control behavior in
  organizations

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Max Weber
Henri Fayol
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Kajian-kajian Hawthorne

• Kajian oleh Elton Mayo terhadap Motivasi Pekerja
  dan Produktiviti Kerja

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Definisi Kajian Hawthorne

• Satu siri kajian mengenalpasti output pekerja
  hasil daripada layanan yang baik oleh pengurus.
• Mengambil sempena nama kilang Western Electric
  Company di Hawthorne, Illinois.

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• Kajian Hawthorne dijalankan pada 1927-1933 di
  Western Electric Hawthorne Works, Chicago, dan
  Harvard Business School Professor Elton Mayo dari
  Sekolah Perniagaan Harvard mengenalpasti
  produktiviti dan persekiataran kerja.

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Latar belakang kajian

• Tujuan kajian adalah untuk mengenalpasti kesan
  daripada keletihan dan perlaksaan tugas yang sama
  setiap hari terhadap produktiviti dan cara
  mengawal mereka menerusi pembolehubah rehat,
  kerja lebih masa, suhu dan kelembapan.

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• Mayo ingin mengenalpasti kesan daripada
  keletihan dan melakukan kerja yang sama terhadap
  produktiviti dan bagaimana mengawal pembolehubah
  seperti waktu rehat, jumlah jam bekerja, suhu dan
  kelembapan.

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Eksperimen Mayo

• Enam wanita yang memasang geganti telefon.
• Membuat perubahan keadaan kerja yang kerap dengan
  peretujuan mereka.
• Jumlah geganti yang dibuat, suhu dan kelembapan
  bilik, sejarah peribadi serta sejarah perubatan,
  tabiat makan dan tidur, perbualan ketika bekerja.
• Tiada penyelia untuk pekerja tersebut.
• Mereka disuruh untuk bekerja mengikut kehendak
  mereka dan keselesaan mereka.

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Keadaan Biasa

• Pada keadaan biasa, waktu kerja adalah 48 jam
  termasuk hari sabtu. Tiada waktu berhenti rehat.

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Eksperimen Satu

• Pekerja diarahkan membuat satu kerja untuk lapan
  minggu.
• Output produktiviti meningkat.

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Eksperimen Dua

• Pekerja diberikan dua waktu rehat, setiap satu
  selama lima minit iaitu waktu pagi dan petang
  untuk jangka masa lima minggu.
• Output meningkat.

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Eksperimen Tiga

• Waktu rehat ditambah kepada 10 minit setiap kali
  rehat.
• Output meningkat mendadak.

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Eksperimen Empat

• Pekerja diberkan rehat sejumlah 6 kali dan setiap
  kali selama lima minit.
• Output jatuh sedikit.
• Pekerja merungut kerana kekerapan berhenti
  mengganggu konsentrasi mereka.

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Eksperimen Lima

• Waktu rehat seperti waktu asal diberikan dan
  pekerja dijamu sup panas.
• Output meningkat.

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Eksperimen Enam

• Pekerja dibenarkan pulan jam 430 p.m. dan bukan
  500 p.m.
• Output meningkat.

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Eksperimen Tujuh

• Pekerja dibenarkan pulang jam 400 p.m.
• Output di tahap yang sama.

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Eksperimen Lapan

• Semua perubahan ditarik balik dan pekerja kembali
  kepada keadaan asal.
• Output yang tertinggi dicatatkan.

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Rumusan Kajian

• Kajian ini membuktikan hubungan antara
  perseorangan dan antara kumpulan adalah penting
  dalam menentukan kecekapan dan keberkesanan
  pekerja berbanding persekitaran kerja.

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Motivation and Hygiene Factors Frederick
Herzberg (1923 2000)
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Herzbergs Motivation-Hygiene Theory

• Focuses on outcomes that lead to higher
  motivation and job satisfaction, and those
  outcomes that can prevent dissatisfaction.
• Motivator needs relate to the nature of the work
  itselfautonomy, responsibility, interesting
  work.
• Hygiene needs are related to the physical and
  psychological context of the workcomfortable
  work environment, pay, job security.
• Unsatisfied hygiene needs create dissatisfaction
  satisfaction of hygiene needs does not lead to
  motivation or job satisfaction.

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Two-factor Theory (or Motivation-Hygiene Theory)

• Herzberg
• Job context is source of dissatisfaction
• Problems with hygiene factors (e.g., pay, working
  conditions) lead to dissatisfaction lack of
  problems means lack of dissatisfaction
• Job content is the source of job satisfaction
• Motivator factors (e.g., achievement,
  responsibility) link with job performance if
  high, satisfaction high and performance strong

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Two-factor Theory (or Motivation-Hygiene Theory)

• Validity unconfirmed not replicated using
  different methods
• Still does not explain individual differences,
  professional or cultural differences

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Motivators and Hygiene Factors

• Frederick Herzberg theorized that two entirely
  separate dimensions contribute to an employees
  behavior at workhygiene factors and motivators.
• Hygiene factors are elements such as working
  conditions, pay, policies, interpersonal
  relationships
• Motivators fulfill high-level needs and include
  achievement, recognition, responsibility and
  opportunity for growth

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Motivators and Hygiene Factors

• Motivators satisfy subordinates-the things
  which encourage them to attend work, comply to
  group or team goals, and produce.
•  They often are linked to performance. Positive
  recognition by a superior and among peers during
  a formal meeting is an example of this.

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Motivators and Hygiene Factors

• Hygiene factors keep subordinates from being
  dissatisfied. They apply to subordinates
  regardless of performance.
•  Timely and thorough completion of and counseling
  on fitness evaluations are an example of a
  hygiene factor.
•  The act is expected. When it does not happen
  subordinates become dissatisfied and may come to
  believe that superiors are not taking care of
  them.
• Satisfiers (motivators) and dissatisfiers
  (hygiene factors) lie on completely different
  scales and must be considered independently.

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Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory

• KITA versus true motivation
• Short-term movement versus long-term motivation
• Job enrichment is an attempt to instill
  an internal generator in the employee
• Studies of Herzbergs theory have included
  employees working in a variety of industries and
  jobs
• Accountants, engineers, nurses, military
  officers, and others

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Hygiene Factors

• Work environment target basic needs
• Range from dissatisfaction to no dissatisfaction
• The presence of hygiene cannot lead to
  satisfaction or high levels of motivation
• Perception that hygiene is an entitlement

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Hygiene Factors (cont)

• Salary
• Can it ever be enough?
• Benefits
• Health care costs, premium sharing
• Company policy administration
• Work conditions
• Office space, equipment, etc.

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Motivator Factors

• Motivators
• Tap needs for psychological growth
• Job content The work itself
• Lead to high levels of employee motivation and
  satisfaction

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Motivator Factors (cont)

• Examples
• Recognition
• Responsibility
• Achievement
• Growth and learning

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Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory
Hygiene Factors (lower order needs)
Motivator Factors (higher order needs)

• Salary
• Company policies
• Working conditions
• Benefits
• Job security

• Career Advancement
• Personal growth
• Recognition
• Responsibility
• Achievement

High
High
Job Dissatisfaction
Job Satisfaction
0
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Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory

• Hygiene Factor - work condition related to
  dissatisfaction caused by discomfort or pain
• maintenance factor
• contributes to employees feeling not
  dissatisfied
• contributes to absence of complaints
• Motivation Factor - work condition related to the
  satisfaction of the need for psychological growth
• job enrichment
• leads to superior performance effort

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MotivationHygiene Theory of Motivation
SOURCE Adapted from Frederick Herzberg, The
Managerial Choice To be Efficient or to Be
Human. (Salt Lake City Olympus, 1982). Reprinted
by permission.
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Motivation-Hygiene Combinations
(Motivation M, Hygiene H)
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Job Satisfaction

• Job satisfaction how positively or negatively
  individuals feel about their jobs
• Observable informally through observation and
  interpretation of behaviour and words
• Measured formally in questionnaires
• E.g., Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire
• E.g., Job Descriptive Index

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Effects of Job Satisfaction

• Link to absenteeism
• Satisfied have lower absenteeism
• Link to turnover
• Dissatisfied more likely to quit
• Link to performance complex
• Satisfaction is NOT good predictor of individual
  performance
• Successful performance does seem to lead to
  greater satisfaction
• Proper allocation of rewards can increase both
  performance and satisfaction

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Summary

• Hygiene factors (dissatisfiers) are working
  conditions, pay, policies, interpersonal
  relationships
• Motivators (satisfiers) fulfill high-level needs
  and include recognition, responsibility and
  opportunity for growth

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Theory X/Y

• Douglas MacGregor, 1960
• Interaction between supervisors and subordinates
• Organizations management approach is determined
  by supervisors attitudes and belief about
  subordinates
• Beginning of human relations movement

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Theory X

• Role of Management
• Management responsible for organizing elements of
  productive enterprise
• People need to be controlled and directed
• People would be passive otherwise

• Human Nature
• man works as little as possible
• lacks ambition, dislikes responsibility, prefers
  to be led
• inherently self-centered
• naturally resistant to change
• gullible, not very bright

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Theory Y

• Role of Management
• Management responsible for organizing elements of
  productive enterprise
• Task of management is to arrange organizational
  conditions so that people can achieve their own
  goals best by directing their own efforts toward
  organizational objectives

• Human Nature
• People are not naturally passive, they have
  become so as a result of experience in
  organizations
• Motivation and capacity for assuming
  responsibility is inherent in people

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Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor)
Theory X Assumes that employees dislike work,
lack ambition, avoid responsibility, and must be
directed and coerced to perform.
Theory Y Assumes that employees like work, seek
responsibility, are capable of making decisions,
and exercise self-direction and self-control when
committed to a goal.
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McGregors Theory X and Theory Y

• Theory X
• Management view that assumes workers generally
  dislike work and must be forced to do their jobs
• Theory Y
• Management view that assumes workers like to work
  and under proper conditions, employees will seek
  responsibility to satisfy social, esteem, and
  self-actualization needs

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Theory Z

• A management philosophy that stresses employee
  participation in all aspects of company decision
  making