English in North America

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English in North America

• Lecture by
• Prof. Dr. Hildegard L.C. Tristram
• Winter Semester 2003/2004
• Potsdam

Sociolinguistic Variation
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Sociolinguistic Variation
regional variation vs. sociolinguistic
variation regional (and local)
sociolinguistic variation language variation
relates to relates to social
stratification geographical space gt social
space
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Sociolinguistic Variation

• rural urban metropolitan spaces of
  linguistic variation
• Metropolitan areas New York, Chicago,
  Boston, Washington D.C., Atlanta, Huston,
  Dallas, San Francisco, Los Angeles
• Toronto, Ottawa, Montréal/Montreal

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Sociolinguistic Variation

• Urban variation
• (social stratification)
• rural variation metropolitan area
• INTERSECTION

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Sociolinguistic VariationSocial Stratification
of Degrees of Standardness
Social Pyramid
Hyperlect
Acrolect
Mesolect
Basilect
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Sociolinguistic VariationSociological Class
Distinctions
upper class UC upper middle class UMC
middle middle class MMC MC lower middle
class LMC upper working class UWC middle
working class MWC WC lower working
class LWC
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Sociolinguistic Variation
correlation between language and social
class independent variables
sociological (extra-linguistic) depen
dent variables linguistic
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Sociolinguistic Variation

• important sociological variables
  gt(independent variables)
• occupation (white collar or blue collar worker)
• fathers and mothers occupation
• income
• education
• locality of residence
• housing type

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Sociolinguistic Variation

• Other important sociological variables are
• age (four stages infancy, childhood,
  adolescence, adulthood age grading)
• gender
• mobility (geographical and social)

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Sociolinguistic Variation
Speech styles (sociolinguistic situations)
very casual very
formal continuum different degrees of
self-monitoring
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Sociolinguistic Variation
Interview tasks (with differing degrees of
formality) reading minimal pairs MP
reading word lists WL reading a
continuous text RS interview style
IS casual style CS
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Sociolinguistic Variation
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Sociolinguistic Variation
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Sociolinguistic Variation
Linguistic variation is no random behaviour, i.e.
there are no free variants of the use of
forms gt there is structured linguistic
variability, i.e. orderly patterns of
variation structured linguistic variability
means it is socially adaptive, i.e. serves
social functions
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Sociolinguistic Variation

• Social functions of structured variability
• marking group identity
• serving overt prestige functions
• Serving covert prestige functions, i.e.linguistic
  machoism or reverse snobbery

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Sociolinguistic Variation
intrinsic function of sociolect
variability serves to create and maintain
linguistic identity for individuals and for
groups of people in urban areas with a high
density of population (for the sake of
self-assurance and maintenance of a sense of
belonging).
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Sociolinguistic Variation
extrinsic value of sociolect variability enable
s people to judge others by their language and
to locate them socially. One word may be
enough for people to know what the sociological
background of their interlocutor is, and they
can adapt their behaviour accordingly. This is
the eminently adaptive value of urban linguistic
variation.
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Sociolinguistic Variation
some important dependent (sociolinguistic)
variables phonological postvocalic (r)
realisation of (th), /?/ and
/?/ (?) realization, /?/ or
/a/ (-ing) lt-ingt, runnin Northern
Cities Shift Boston short (o) final
consonant cluster reduction
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Sociolinguistic Variation
other important dependent (sociolinguistic)
variables grammatical multiple
negation use of double modals (had ought
to) use of aint copula
deletion invariant was verbal
morphology (done, seen etc.)
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Sociolinguistic Variation

• phonological variables are less stigmatized
  than grammatical ones
• some of the non-standard variables occur in
  most if not all of the World Englishes, not just
  in North America
• (-ing), double negation, done, seen

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Sociolinguistic Variation
The (r) variable has a different
social function as class marker in New York and
in Boston Boston prestigious, upper class
park your car in Harvard yard New
York stigmatized, lower working class /nu
j??k/
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Sociolinguistic Variation
standard speech a restricted code allows
no variation (or only very little)
language of power and repression of
natural variation for the sake of
supra-regional communication
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Sociolinguistic Variation
non-standard speech an unrestricted code
with natural variation which has
social significance for in- group
communication and the constrution of
identity
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Sociolinguistic VariationStandard Speech

• homogenization of variability through social
  and geographical mobility
• social risers tend to give up the use of non-
  standard forms and assume more standard forms
• geographically mobile people also tend towards
  the use of the supra-regional standard

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Sociolinguistic Variation
psychological reason for homogenization speaker
accommodation because of social norm
enforcement accommodation theory (social
psychology)
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Sociolinguistic Variation
low urban/metropolitan mobility and great
population density (e.g. ghettos) ? development
of close-knit sociolects great mobility and
low population density ?loose-knit sociolects
or none at all
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Sociolinguistic Variation
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Sociolinguistic V ariation
The most important North American sociolinguists
are William Labov (USA) Walt Wolfram
(USA)
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Sociolinguistic V ariation
The most important North American sociolinguists
are Jack Chambers
(Can) Shana Poplack (Can)