The Jesuits in China

1
The Jesuits in China

• Adrienn Handley
• Michael Knittle
• Annmarie Santiago
• Joel Zamalloa
• Josef Nemec

1970 Formosa Stamp In honor of Italian Jesuit
Missionary By Joseph Castiglione (Source
Fairfield University)
2
Founder of the Jesuits Ignatius of Loyola

• Born in 1491, in a Basque province of Spain.
• Before turning to religion he was a Spanish
  officer, gambler and ladies man.
• He got hurt while protecting a Spanish fortress
  and was laid up in bed. Asked for his favorite
  books, romances of chivalry, but in stead he got
  a book on the life of Christ and saints.
• This experience changed his life forever.
• He was beatified in 1609.

Ignatius of Loyola (Source http//ignatiushistor
y.info/)
3
Society of Jesus

• After reading several religious books, Ignatius
  thought that the lives of saints were worth
  imitating.
• He converted. Then fasted, did penance, works of
  charity and dedicated himself to God.
• He and his companions underwent Spiritual
  Exercises.
• August 15, 1534 Ignatius with seven of his
  companions dedicated themselves to poverty,
  chastity and at the service of the Holy Father in
  Rome.
• A book containing Ignatius inner struggles
  about anxieties, temptations as well as
  illuminations about his past and future life.

Vows at Montmarte (Source http//ignatiushistory.
info/)
4
More about the Jesuits

• The stated purpose Salvation and Perfection of
  each Jesuit and ultimately every human being.
• Chartered by the Pope in 1540.
• The order is highly centralized.
• There is a long period of training, 12 years to
  become a fully professed Jesuit.
• The priests are bound by the vows of obedience,
  celibacy, poverty and personal loyalty to the
  Pope.
• No distinctive dress, such as Benedictines. The
  Jesuits dressed like ordinary priests.

Rome in the 16th Century (Source
http//ignatiushistory.info)
5
Jesuits As Educators

• With the leadership of Ignatius schools were
  founded.
• A century later, mid 1600s, there were over 300
  Jesuit Colleges all over Europe.
• The goal of Jesuit schools was to help young
  people find God and ultimately become better
  human beings.
• They brought uniformity, discipline and
  organization to an otherwise eclectic educational
  system.
• There are 28 Jesuit universities and colleges in
  the United States today.
• Another 90 in 28 other countries.

Coimbra Portugal, first Jesuit College (Source
http//ignatiushistory.info/)
6
Jesuits as Missionaries

• They put high priority on missionary work among
  non-Christians as their original intent was to
  form a mission to the Moslems in Jerusalem.
• Wanted to propagate and strengthen the Catholic
  faith.
• They were also present in Brazil and Paraguay.
• Francis Xavier, a few months after the foundation
  of the order, went to the far East. He preached
  mainly in India, Japan and China.
• Because of their emphasis on education and
  missionary work, its easy to see that China
  provided a potential fertile environment for the
  expansion of Catholicism.

7
Early European Contact with China

• Knowledge of Yuan (Mongol) Dynasty China was
  brought to Europe in the 13th Century by Marco
  Polo.
• Many Europeans dismissed the tales of China as
  fantasy. Others believed China to be a source of
  endless riches.
• A Franciscan mission was established in Khanbalik
  (Beijing) but it did not survive the collapse of
  the Yuan Dynasty.
• Further knowledge of and contact with China would
  have to wait for another time.

Artists Impression of Marco Polo in the Court of
Kublai Khan in 1266. (Source Wikimedia Commons)
8
Age of Discovery

• Growth of the Ottoman and Mongol Empires led to
  Islamic domination of trade routes to East Asia
  by the mid 15th century.
• The close of the 15th century brought with it the
  Age of Discovery. Spanish and Portuguese
  explorers began to seek alternative sea routes to
  Asia.
• The Portuguese discovered the route around the
  southern tip of Africa which reopened the Orient
  to Europe.
• By 1511 the Known World had doubled in size.
  These new lands became the central focus of
  European Christian missionary work.

Bernardus Sylvanus Map of the Known World in
1511 (Source www.discoveryeditions.com)
9
Europeanism

• By the end of the Middle Ages, Europe developed a
  strong belief in its own cultural superiority.
  This was extended to a superiority of
  Christianity over other beliefs because European
  Culture and European Christianity were one and
  the same.
• Europeans viewed all non-European cultures and
  therefore all non-Christians as the work of
  Satan. Assimilation of pagan Roman, Celtic, and
  Germanic beliefs, which was the manner in which
  Christianity spread in Europe in the first place,
  was long forgotten.
• Papal Bulls (pronouncements) gave the Spanish and
  Portuguese the privilege of monopolizing trade
  routes to Asia and the Americas in exchange for
  pledging to spread Christianity to the new lands.

10
Failure of Europeanism in Asia

• Missionary work in Asia and the Americas was
  essentially Spanish and Portuguese imperialism,
  with the blessings of the Pope.
• Portuguese Imperialism in Asia was far less
  successful than Spanish Imperialism was in the
  Americas. The European Christians were confronted
  with rich advanced cultures in India and China.
• Although spreading Christianity was not difficult
  in India, forced spread of European cultural
  norms was met with fierce resistance and proved
  to be doomed to failure.

Artists Impression of Vasco da Gamas landing at
India in 1498 (Source Wikimedia Commons)
11
Ming Dynasty

• The reopening of the East brought the Tales of
  Marco Polo back to life. Europeans believed China
  to be a wealthy and powerful nation.
• In reality, China was in decline. China was
  highly civilized and was united both culturally
  and politically, but it existed in isolation from
  the outside world. European contempt for other
  cultures was matched by Chinese avoidance of an
  outside world full of barbarians.
• Scholars of the Neo-Confucian school had
  developed a dominant position in Chinese
  government. Confucianism became inseparable from
  Chinese culture as Christianity was inseparable
  from European Culture.

Zhengde Emperor of the Ming Dynasty Was said to
have neglected leadership duties for life of
leisure, contributing to decline of the Ming
Dynasty. (Source Wikimedia Commons)
12
Decline of Ming Dynasty and Jesuits

• Decline of the Ming Dynasty brought with it
  conflict between scholars, eunuchs (who were also
  powerful in government), and intellectuals.
• Some scholars turned away from rigid adherence to
  the Neo-Confucianism school of thought and were
  curious about the outside world and new ideas.
• However, most Chinese scholars believed that
  orthodoxy to Confucianism was the Touch Tone of
  Truth.
• The Jesuits were the among the first to realize
  that, just as it failed in India, missionary work
  through European imperialism would NOT work in
  China.

The Great Wall of China (Source
www.photoatlas.com)
13
Who Supported The Jesuits

• Alessndro Valignano
• An Italian Jesuit who came up with the idea that
  the only way to convert China to Christianity is
  to enter into the body of the Chinese culture,
  and to transform it from within. Valignano also
  ordered the abandonment of the policy of
  portugalizing converts.

Postage Stamp showing the Church of the
Immaculate Conception in Beijing (Source Manresa
Jesuit Retreat House)
14
Who Supported The Jesuits cont.

• Michele Ruggieri
• Also an Italian Jesuit, was ordered by Valignano
  to learn how to read, write, and speak Chinese.
  Ruggieri persuaded his fellow Jesuits to observe
  the formalities of the Chinese customs. So
  pleased were the Chinese officials of the
  improvement of the Portuguese manners that they
  insisted Ruggieris presence at all public
  audiences.

Comparison of Dominican and Jesuit Styles of
dress in Chinese Missions. (Source Manresa
Jesuit Retreat House)
15
Who Supported The Jesuits cont.

• Matteo Ricci
• Italian Jesuit missionary who helped introduce
  Christianity to China. When Ricci arrived in
  China in 1582 Chinas interior was closed to all
  foreigners. Due to Ricci willingness to adopt
  the Chinese language and culture he was allowed
  to enter the country. In 1601 Ricci was admitted
  to Beijing, where he preached the Gospel, taught
  science to the scholars, and translated Christian
  works into Chinese.

Matteo Ricci (Source University of Scranton)
16
What the Jesuits did in China

• Main goal of going to China was to convert
  Chinese to Catholicism.
• There were two way to convert people
• Tabula Rasa Peoples lives from beginning to end
  were full of superstitious practices and all
  traditions must be abandoned in order to develop
  new religious values.
• Accommodation Working with people as they are
  and accepting that not all things in a persons
  life are evil. Building relations upon the
  commonality of a persons life and the Christian
  religion.

17
Reasons for Accommodation?

• Chinas population was 150 million people.
• Chinas culture and religions were well developed
  and Jesuits did not believe Chinese could abandon
  their ways.
• Jesuits had to first gain the trust of the
  Chinese by respecting and learning their culture
  and traditions.

(Source http//images.google.com/images?svnum10
hlenlrqchina )
18
The first two Jesuits to go to China

• Michele Ruggieri and Matteo Ricci were the first
  to go to China.
• Their mission was to gain trust in China by
  learning how to read, write, and speak Chinese.
• After learning the language, Ruggieri and Ricci
  were allowed to live in Chao-ching and Nachangl.

Matteo Ricci (1552-1610) (Source Fairfield
University)
19
Books, essays, and more

• Many people were amazed by Riccis memorization
  skills. Ricci could repeat, after a single
  reading, 400 characters written at random from
  Chinese scholars.
• Ricci wrote his first essay in memorization
  techniques called Western Memory Techniques
  (His-kuo chi fa) in 1595.
• Other books Ricci wrote
• Treaties of Friendship (Chiao-yu lun)
• Scholars of Talent and Friendship
• True Meaning of the Lord of Heaven (Tien-Chu
  Shih-i)
• Myriad Nations of the Earth (Kunyu Wah-Kuo Chu
  an-tu)
• Chinese soon changed their negative view of
  Europeans.

20
Translation of Books

• Ricci also translated several books and essays
  into Chinese and wrote essays on Christianity in
  order to attract Chinese.
• Ricci also translated The Four Books of
  Confucianism into Latin.

Kongzi or Kungfu tzu (Confucius) (Source
http//images.google.com/images?hlenlrqConfuc
ianismsaNtabwi)
21
Art in China

• To help the Chinese people understand Christian
  principles, the Jesuits gave gifts of religious
  art.
• The spiritual message within the art was easier
  to understand then complexity of Christian
  redemption.
• But the message was not as fascinating as the art
  techniques that were used.
• Soon Chinese artists were using the same methods
  as artists in Europe.

History of the life of Christ, with
illustrations, Chin-chiang, Fukien The
Chin-chiang Church, 1637 (Source Ibiblio.com
Vatican Exhibit)
22

• The left picture is from China and the right
  picture is from Madrid, Spain.
• The similarity of the paintings is amazing since
  these two countries are very different from each
  other.

(Source Ronan, East Meets West)
23
Churches in China

• Since Jesuits assimilated to Chinese culture,
  performed services/duties for China and their
  Emperor, and did not commit any crimes, the
  Emperor of China signed an edict allowing worship
  and attending of churches within China.
• Although in the end, there was not a lot of
  people that converted to Catholicism, the books
  and tools given by the Jesuits was greatly valued
  and appreciated.

24
Chinas Reaction

• China remained firm in her isolation to
  outsiders.
• Jesuits and other missionaries initially failed
  in their attempts to convert the Chinese to
  Christianity, because of their lack of knowledge
  of the Chinese culture. They had made no effort
  to learn the Chinese language and customs.
• The Chinese accused some of the Jesuits of spying
  for the Japanese.

25
Who Didnt Support The Jesuits and Why

• Fellow Catholics disapproved of the adoption of
  the Chinese language and culture, due to the fact
  that the Chinese missions were not subjected to
  Europeanism.
• Accusations from the Catholic Church that the
  Jesuits in China failed to propagate the laws of
  the church, and the methods of administering the
  sacraments.
• The Chinese rites controversy, which was a
  dispute within the Catholic Church about whether
  Chinese folk religion rites and offerings to the
  emperor constituted idolatry.
• Pope Clement XIs decree regarding the Chinese
  rites controversy. The pope made the assessment
  that the Confucian rituals were indeed in
  conflict with Christian teaching.
• Kangxi Emperor was angered by Pope Clement XIs
  decree, and banned Christian missions in China.

26
The Rites Controversy

• The primary goal of the Jesuits was to spread
  Catholicism, but here they had a problem. The
  Chinese elite were attached to Confucianism which
  provided the framework of both state and home
  life. Part of Confucian practice involved
  veneration of the ancestors. The Jesuits tried to
  argue, in Rome, that these "Chinese Rites" were
  social, not religious, ceremonies, and that
  converts should be allowed to continue to
  participate. The debate was not, as is sometimes
  thought, about whether the liturgy could be in
  Chinese rather than Latin. This claim by the
  Jesuits may have been disingenuous. Although in
  later European commentary on China it has
  continued to be claimed that Confucianism is a
  "philosophy" and not a "religion" - because it
  does not conform to the model of western
  religions, the pope was probably correct in his
  assessment that the Confucian rituals were indeed
  in conflict with Christian teaching. As a result,
  he gave up a very good opportunity to convert a
  significant part of the Chinese elite to
  Catholicism.

27
Decree of Pope Clement XI (1715)

• The Jesuits claim Chinese terms could be used to
  designate the Christian God and that the
  Confucian ceremonies were merely civil rites that
  Christians could attend and that Chinese ancestor
  worship was compatible with Christianity was
  condemned by Pope Clement XI in 1715.
• Pope Clement XI wishes to make the following
  facts permanently known to all the people in the
  world....
• I. The West calls Deus God the creator of
  Heaven, Earth, and everything in the universe.
  Since the word Deus does not sound right in the
  Chinese language, the Westerners in China and
  Chinese converts to Catholicism have used the
  term "Heavenly Lord" for many years. From now on
  such terms as "Heaven" and "Shangti" should not
  be used Deus should be addressed as the Lord of
  Heaven, Earth, and everything in the universe.
  The tablet that bears the Chinese words
  "Reverence for Heaven" should not be allowed to
  hang inside a Catholic church and should be
  immediately taken down if already there.
• II. The spring and autumn worship of Confucius,
  together with the worship of ancestors, is not
  allowed among Catholic converts. It is not
  allowed even though the converts appear in the
  ritual as bystanders, because to be a bystander
  in this ritual is as pagan as to participate in
  it actively.
• III. Chinese officials and successful candidates
  in the metropolitan, provincial, or prefectural
  examinations, if they have been converted to
  Roman Catholicism, are not allowed to worship in
  Confucian temples on the first and fifteenth days
  of each month. The same prohibition is applicable
  to all the Chinese Catholics who, as officials,
  have recently arrived at their posts or who, as
  students, have recently passed the metropolitan,
  provincial, or prefectural examinations.

28
Decree of Pope Clement XI Continued

• IV. No Chinese Catholics are allowed to worship
  ancestors in their familial temples.
• V. Whether at home, in the cemetery, or during
  the time of a funeral, a Chinese Catholic is not
  allowed to perform the ritual of ancestor
  worship. He is not allowed to do so even if he is
  in company with nonChristians. Such a ritual is
  heathen in nature regardless of the
  circumstances.
• Despite the above decisions, I have made it clear
  that other Chinese customs and traditions that
  can in no way be interpreted as heathen in nature
  should be allowed to continue among Chinese
  converts. The way the Chinese manage their
  households or govern their country should by no
  means be interfered with. As to exactly what
  customs should or should not be allowed to
  continue, the papal legate in China will make the
  necessary decisions. In the absence of the papal
  legate, the responsibility of making such
  decisions should rest with the head of the China
  mission and the Bishop of China. In short,
  customs and traditions that are not contradictory
  to Roman Catholicism will be allowed, while those
  that are clearly contradictory to it will not be
  tolerated under any circumstances.

29
Interestingly enough
Initially the Chinese emperor welcomed the
Jesuits as stated here in a decree from 1692

The Europeans are very quiet they do not excite
any disturbances in the provinces, they do no
harm to anyone, they commit no crimes, and their
doctrine has nothing in common with that of the
false sects in the empire, nor has it any
tendency to excite sedition . . . We decide
therefore that all temples dedicated to the Lord
of heaven, in whatever place they may be found,
ought to be preserved, and that it may be
permitted to all who wish to worship this God to
enter these temples, offer him incense, and
perform the ceremonies practised according to
ancient custom by the Christians. Therefore let
no one henceforth offer them any opposition.
But that would later change nearly 30 years later
in 1722 after the previously stated decree from
the pope in 1715. He shows his anger here in the
decree from 1722 were he would end up banning the
missions
Reading this proclamation, I have concluded that
the Westerners are petty indeed. It is impossible
to reason with them because they do not
understand larger issues as we understand them in
China. There is not a single Westerner versed in
Chinese works, and their remarks are often
incredible and ridiculous. To judge from this
proclamation, their religion is no different from
other small, bigoted sects of Buddhism or Taoism.
I have never seen a document which contains so
much nonsense. From now on, Westerners should not
be allowed to preach in China, to avoid further
trouble.
30
What the Jesuits brought back from China

• Chinoserie In French this meant bizarre tricks
  or monkey-shines, but basically it was the
  fascination of things Chinese

In the 18th century, the Europeans viewed China
as a faraway place which was a a place of escape
from the trials of daily life, as a haven of
leisure and luxury, as a utopia where laughter is
always gay. Somewhat how we perceive Hawaii, or
other great areas that we may never visit.
31

• Although the Jesuits may have brought many things
  back from China, it is very possible that many of
  these were linked with others instead.

One can argue that the most important thing which
the Jesuits were credited for bringing back to
Europe was the knowledge of what China was
actually like and the experiences they endured.
32
Converts

• In 1685, Father Philippe Couplet brought two
  Chinese converts to Europe. One was sent to be
  examined in Oxford, Berlin, and Vienna by
  linguists who were interested in the intricacies
  of the Chinese language. The other stayed in
  Paris to work on a dictionary that the French
  Jesuits wanted to use for future missionary work
  in China.

Finally by 1700, European scholars had learned
from their investigations of Chinese something
about the differences between the literary and
spoken languages the tonal system and dialects
of the spoken tongue the monosyllabic nature of
the characters the absence of grammar and
inflection the historical evolution of the
characters and the various styles of
calligraphy. They were not able, however, to
produce the key either to Chinese or to
thehieroglyphs of Egypt, which a number of them
vainly sought.
33
References

• Brodrick, James. 1940. The Origins of the
  Jesuits. London Lowe and Brydone.
• Dunne, G. H. 1962. Generation of Giants The
  Story of the Jesuits in China in the Last Decades
  of the Ming Dynasty. Notre Dame University of
  Notre Dame Press.
• Elwood, A. Email to Josef Nemec, 17 October 2006.
• Halsall, P. Modern History Sourcebook Chinese
  Rites Controversy, Fordham University,
  http//www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1715chineserite
  s.html
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  se/sjedtrad.htm
• "Jesuits (Society of Jesus)," Catholic
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  tm
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  dv1-48
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• Neill, S. 1964. A History of Christian Missions.
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• Ronan, C. E. and B. B. C. Oh. 1988. East Meets
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• School of Mathematics and Statistics, Matteo
  Ricci, St Andrews University Scotland,
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  aticians/Ricci_Matteo.html
• "Society of Jesus," U.S. Jesuit Conference,
  http//www.jesuit.org
• Van Hoesel, F. Missionaries and Mandarins,
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