China and Japan

1
China and Japan
Part IV, Kamakura, Japan to Qing, China.

• Gov/Hist 352
• Campbell University

2
Hogen and Heiji Conflicts

• The Hogen (1156) and Heiji (1159-60) conflicts
  set the stage for the Gempei War.
• These conflicts occurred during the period of
  Insei rule and involved the Taira and Minamoto
  clans. Taira no Kiyomori was the winner of both.
• By 1180, the Minamoto had rebuilt its power in
  eastern Japan and under Yoritomo initiated the
  Gempei War (1180-85).

Taira no Kiyomori (Woodblock
Print)
3
Gempei War

• The war led to the permanent defeat of the Taira
  by Minamoto Yoritomo.
• Yoritomos younger brother, Yoshitsune, proved to
  be a brilliant military leader.
• The heroic exploits of the war are celebrated in
  The Tale of Heike. One of the heroes of the tale
  is Minamoto Kiso Yoshinaka.

The final battle was a naval engagement fought at
Dan-no-ura on the Straits of Shimonoseki.
4
Kamakura Bakufu

• Having defeated the Taira in 1185, Yoritomo
  became defacto ruler of Japan. He established the
  headquarters of his military government in
  Kamakura and wrestled the title of Shogun from
  the Imperial court in 1192.
• After Yoritomo's death, Hojo Tokimasa, claimed
  the title of regent to Yoritomo's son, Minamoto
  no Yoriie.
• The Hojo regency became hereditary.

Minamoto Yoritomo (1123-60)
5
Jokyo Disturbance

• By 1221, the Shogun exercised almost total
  control over the court. Emperor Go-Toba reacted
  by attempting to overthrow the Bakufu.
• The emperor gathered forces loyal to the court
  (mostly Taira) at Kyoto and then declared the
  Hojo regent (Yoshitoki) an outlaw.
• War ensued. The emperors forces were no match
  for the Shoguns. The final battle was fought at
  the Uji River. Go-Toba and his sons were
  banished.

6
Jito and Shugo

• Yoritomo devised a system of Jito (land stewards)
  and Shugo (constables or military protectors)
  thru which he imposed his control of the country.
• Jito
• Levied the commissariat rice tax for military
  purposes.
• Collected land taxes and dues from the shoen and
  provided shoen men for military service.
• Reclaimed wastelands, supervised roads and post
  stations, arrested minor criminals, judged suits
  and conducted trade.
• Eventually became hereditary local gentry..
• Shugo activated the Imperial Guard, maintained
  security, suppressed rebellions, and punished
  major criminals. They became the daimyo.

7
Bakufu Government

• Internally, the Bakufu was composed of three
  major major divisions.
• Military supervised the Minamoto vassals plus
  delt with military and police matters.
• Administrative a hereditary civil service which
  was initially quite effective. Documentation was
  a surprising strength. Titles, obligations,
  contracts pledges, etc., were all written and on
  record.
• Judicial functioned as a court of appeals for
  cases that could not be settled locally by the
  Jito and Shugo. Justice was prompt, impartial
  and fair. It recognized the mutual obligations
  of peasant and barons and didn't hesitate to side
  with the peasant, if appropriate.

8
Joei Code

• The Joei Code was published in 1232. It was the
  Shoguns law of the land.
• Described the duties of the Jito and Shugo.
• Laid down principles for judging disputes,
  primarily involving land tenure.
• Dealt with the status of women and inheritance.
• The wife is equally responsible as the husband
  for premeditated crimes.
• Gifts of land to daughters are equally
  irrevocable as to sons.
• Women may adopt children and transmit property to
  them.
• Women do not loose property rights in case of
  divorce, unless for cause.
• Emphasized the importance of fairness and equity.

9
Code of Bushido

• The Code of Bushido (Way of the Warrior) evolved
  from clan house law.
• Absolute loyalty to ones lord transcended all
  other obligations including those to family,
  friends and even the emperor.
• The vassals life was not his own, but a gift to
  his lord.
• The vassal could hope for rewards, but the lord
  was not obligated to provide them.
• Conflicts in loyalty and affection were the
  source of classic Japanese tragedy. The most
  famous of these is the Tale of the Forty-seven
  Ronin.

10
The Mongol Invasion

• Kublai Khan attempted to invade Japan twice
• 1274 450 ships, 15, 000 Mongol troops 15,000
  Korean seamen and auxiliaries attacked Kyushu.
• 1281 Two fleets, one from Korea with 50,000 men
  and another from China with 100,000 men converged
  on Kyushu.
• The Japanese fought heroically, but it was the
  Kamikaze that won.

Mongol Invasion Route
11
The Mongol Invasion

• 1274
• The Japanese garrison on Tsushima Island fought
  to the death.
• The local stewards and constables on Kyushu
  engaged the Mongols w/o reinforcements.
• 1281
• Hakata Bay was fortified.
• The Japanese trained in mass maneuvers.
• The temples and shrines chanted prayers.

Mongol cannon balls and grenades. The Mongols
not only used cannon but catapults as well to lob
grenades against their enemy. Spent munitions
were recently found by archeologist at Hakata
Bay..
12
End of Kamakura Bakufu

• Success against the Mongols was the undoing of
  the shogunate.
• The Buddhist temples and Daoist shrines took much
  of the credit, claiming their prayers and
  supplications brought the kamikaze.
• The warriors expected to be rewarded, but there
  was nothing with which to reward them. The usual
  rewards were land and booty.
• Disillusion with the shogunate led to its
  weakening and resulted in stewards and protectors
  becoming increasingly independent.

13
The Pure Land Sect

• The turbulence associated with the rise of the
  warrior class supported fear of the end times
  or mappo and pietism. Amida worship flourished.
• Honen taught that the nembutsu was the only
  method of achieving salvation. This represented
  salvation through faith rather than works.
• Shinran (1173-1262) emphasized gaining salvation
  through the other power of the Amidas
  compassion. This was salvation by faith alone.
  His followers founded the True Pure Land sect.

14
Nichiren

• Was a monk who founded the Nichiren school of
  Buddhism, consisting of the exclusive worship of
  the Lotus Sutra as the only means of salvation
• He had studied for 20 years when in 1853 he
  declared his faith and asserted that all other
  forms of Buddhism should be banished.
• He prophesized the Mongol invasion as Japans
  punishment in the end times.

Nichiren (1222 to 1282) The name means
Sun Lotus.
15
Zen

• During the Kamakura period, Zen was promoted by
  two monks
• Eisai (1141-1215), a follower of the Rinzai
  school that used riddles or koan as an aid to
  enlightenment (satori). He also introduced the
  use of tea leading to the development of the tea
  ceremony.
• Dogen (1200-1253), an advocate of the Soto school
  of Zen. It relied on Zazen, silent meditation.
• Zen is a highly disciplined practice that can be
  quite physically demanding.

16
Kemmu Restoration

• The Ashikaga Shogunate began with the Kemmu
  Restoration (1333-1336) when Emperor Go-Daigo
  tried to reassert imperial control.
• Go-Daigos immediate objective was to break an
  agreement to alternate the selection of emperors
  between the two branches (Northern and Southern)
  of the Yamato family.
• Two individuals acted in the emperors name
• Ashikaga Takauji (1305-1358) commander of the
  Bakufu force sent to suppress the rebellion.
• Nitta Yoshisada (1301-1338) who seized Kamakura
  and ended the Minamoto bakufu and Hojo regency.

17
Ashikaga Shogunate

• Go-Daigo played Ashikaga Takauji and Nitta
  Yoshida against each other and attempted to
  submerge their military forces into his civilian
  government.
• Takauji defeated Nitta, dethroned the emperor,
  placed his own man on the throne from the
  Northern court and had himself declared shogun in
  1338.
• The Ashikaga did not have sufficient power to
  control events. The Shoen system broke down, the
  constables became powers unto themselves and the
  stewards stopped forwarding shiki to Kyoto.

18
Muromachi Bakufu

• The Ashikaga shogunate established its bakufu in
  Muromachi, a district in Kyoto.
• The structure of the bakufu changed little from
  Kamakura. The key difference was the increased
  power of the shugo, who became regional rulers.
• Under Yoshimitsu, the shugo were required to
  establish their primary residence in Kyoto, where
  they ruled in council with the shogun.
• To meet Ashikaga demands, the shugo and jito
  levied new taxes on land, households, businesses
  and trade, much of which they kept.

19
Yoshimitsus Japan

• The Ashikaga Shogunate was seduced by the
  life-style of the imperial court.
• Yoshimitsu and his heirs became great patrons of
  the arts while ignoring the anarchy around them.
• Yoshimitsu engaged in extensive and lucrative
  trade with the Ming.
• Zen temples functioned as patrons.

The lavish life-style of the period is
symbolized by the Golden Pavilion. Yoshimitsu
began construction of the pavilion in 1397 as a
residence for his retirement. It was converted
into a Zen temple after his death in 1408.
20
Zen Architecture
Together with Yoshimitsus Golden Pavilion,
Yoshimasas Silver Pavilion and the Ryoanji rock
garden reflect the strong influence of Zen. Like
the Golden Pavilion, the Silver Pavilion was
built as a retirement residence, then became a
Zen temple. Ryoanji was built on a Fujiwara
estate after the Onin War.
21
Zen the Tea Ceremony

• The tea ceremony became a ritual art during
  Yoshimasas tenure as shogun.
• The Silver Pavilion was the first to have a room
  built specifically for the tea ceremony.
• The tea room/house is intended to have an austere
  simplicity. There is no furniture, just mats. The
  walls are sliding partitions and doors. The entry
  is only 36 inches high, so all must bow
  acknowledging that they are equal before the tea.

Japanese tea is prepared from powdered green
leaves.
22
Noh

• Noh is a classical Japanese performance form
  which combines dance, drama, music and poetry.
• Actors wear masks and brightly colored costumes
  a chorus accompanied by flutes and drums provides
  narration. All parts are played by men
• Noh performances are accompanied by Kyogen farces
  to lift the mood.

The founders of Noh were Kanami (1333-84)and his
son, Zeami (1363-1443). Noh flourished under the
patronage of Ashikaga Yoshimitsu
23
Trade and Commerce

• Trade with China, and to a lesser extent Korea,
  became an important source of Ashikaga income.
• Exports to China Copper, Sulfur, folding fans,
  lacquer ware, large numbers of swords and other
  weapons.
• Imports from China Copper coins, Iron, textiles,
  embroideries, pictures, books and drugs.
• Sakai (south of Osaka) became a principal port
  for local international trade. The merchants
  became so rich that the Kamakura and Ashikaga
  called upon them for loans. The price was limited
  self-government and judicial autonomy.

24
Transportation

• The constant warfare forced improvements in roads
  and ports.
• A weak central government led to a proliferation
  of local customs and tariffs. Each manor and
  monastery demanded tolls and taxes.
• The cost of transporting items could be easily
  doubled to compensate for tolls and taxes.

Muromachi Ship, 1538. Artist Conception
25
Guilds

• Guilds (Za) became common. They attached
  themselves to temples, shrines and great families
  for protection. Examples
• The Kyoto cotton clothiers - the Gion Shine.
• Yeast brewers Kitano Shrine
• Warehouse Keepers Tendai Monastery.
• Paper maker The Bojo family.
• Gold leaf makers The Konoe family
• Courtesans The Kuga family.
• Protection didnt come cheap.

26
Peasant Riots

• Taxes were heavy, usury was the rule and pawn
  shops the vehicle.
• Peasant riots led to 13 tokusei,i.e., general
  cancellation of debts.
• Rioting groups were frequently strengthened by
  ronin members and could defeat minor military
  contingents.
• Towns, villages and even provinces were held for
  extended periods by ronin reinforced peasant
  groups.

27
The Family

• During this period of anarchy, the family became
  a critical social and political element.
• The ability to protect property became critical.
  Primogeniture became common. All property was
  rewarded to a single male heir, usually the
  oldest, but not always.
• The objective was to hold property by force of
  arms.
• Constant warfare led to the country being
  partitioned into small self-governing units
  controlled by a single overlord, the ShugoDaimyo.

28
Onin War

• Was a succession dispute in which the Yamana and
  Hosokawa clans backed different candidates to
  succeed the retiring Yoshimasa (1436-1490) as
  shogun.
• Each clan amassed 80,000 troops in Kyoto. The
  conflict lasted from 1467 to 1477. Kyoto was
  destroyed and looted many times over.
• Violence spread to all of Japan, becoming the
  Warring States Period.

An Ashikaga Daimyo
29
Azuchi-Momoyama Period

• Three major figures emerged to restore order to
  Japan and create a feudal state.
• Oda Nobunaga (1534-1582).
• Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536-1598)
• Tokugawa Ieyasu (1543-1616)
• In describing the relationship between these
  three men, it was said that "The reunification is
  a rice cake Oda made it. Toyotomi shaped it. At
  last, only Ieyasu tasted it."

30
Oda Nobunaga

• Oda Nobunaga was the first to attempt to unify
  Japan.
• He inherited Owari in central Honshu. He overcame
  divisions in his own clan and thru alliances and
  conquest controlled 1/3rd of Japan when he was
  assassinated in 1582.
• Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Ieyasu were both
  his generals

Oda Nobunaga. He pioneered the use of modern
weapons and tactics. The Battle of Nagashino in
1575 was a classic in the use of firearms.
31
Toyotomi Hideyoshi

• Hideyoshi was one of Oda Nobunagas ablest
  generals, but his greatest talent was politics.
• He managed to keep Tokugawa Ieyasu at bay through
  marriage and land assignments in Kanto.
• Hideyoshi controlled Japan thru personal
  loyalties. He could not be named shogun as he was
  not a Minamoto, but he did have himself adopted
  into the Fujiwara family and was appointed
  regent.

Toyotomi Hideyoshi
32
Hideyoshis Domestic Policy

• Relocation of Daimyo and their Samurai.
• Sword Hunt of 1588.
• Minimized rioting and rebellion.
• Separated farmer from samurai
• Land Survey- Set minimum to be a Daimyo
• Edict of 1591-Converted class to caste.
• Occupational status could not be changed.
• Peasants became serfs for practical purposes.

33
Hideyoshis Foreign Policy

• In the 1590s, demanded the submission of the
  Philippines by the Spanish governor.
• Tried to invade Korea and China.
• In 1592, sent 150,000 men to invade Korea. His
  forces were pushed back by Chinese forces into
  the Pusan pocket.
• In 1597, sent another 140,000 men.
• In 1598, Hideyoshi was preparing to send
  additional troops when he died.

34
Tokugawa Ieyasu

• As one of Hideyoshis more powerful allies,
  Ieyasu was assigned a large domain at Edo (now
  Tokyo) in the Kanto Plain.
• When Hideyoshi died, Ieyasu was one of five
  regents sworn to support Hideyori, Hideyoshis
  five year old son.
• The Battle of Sekigahara in 1600 led to Ieyasu
  being designated shogun in 1603.
• Osaka Castle fell in 1615 and ended Hideyoris
  life.

Tokugawa Ieyasu
35
Castles

• In addition to being defensive fortifications,
  castles were status symbols and centers around
  which new towns grew.
• Decorations were ostentatious and profuse.
  Entertainment was equally elaborate including 10
  day tea parties.
• Nevertheless, aesthetic austerity remained the
  ideal.

Osaka Castle (Momoyama) was built by Toyotomi
Hideyoshi on the pattern of Oda Nobunagas
Castle. It originally had 48 towers. The
current structure was rebuilt in 1997.
36
Tokugawa Government

• The Tokugawa capital was Edo with deputies
  stationed at Osaka, Shizuoka and Kyoto.
• The Daimyo were bound to the shogun by oaths of
  loyalty and family.
• Tozama- Outside or allied daimyo.
• Fudai- House daimyo Tokugawa vassals.
• Shimpan- Collateral daimyo members of Tokugawa
  branch families.
• The fudai and shimpan were strategically located.
  The tozama were considered the most potentially
  dangerous and were assigned lands in outer areas.

37
Tokugawa Control

• Daimyo were
• Required to live in Edo during alternate years
  (sankin kotai). Families were left in Edo when
  the Daimyo returned to his estate.
• Limited to one castle repairs required bakufu
  approval.
• Limited in the number of warriors that they could
  maintain.
• Prohibited from building large ships.
• Required to obtain the Bakufus consent for
  marriages.
• Subject to the confiscation of estates if unable
  to produce a male heir. (Adoptions were not
  recognized.)

38
Tokugawa Strength

• A comparison of agricultural holdings.
• Tokugawa 6.8 million koku
• Shimpan 2.6 million koku
• Fudai 6.7 million koku
• Tozama 9.8 million koku
• Religious Institutions- 600,000 koku
• The Emperor- 187,000 koku
• The Tokugawa possessed about 1/4th of Japans
  land, many of Japans mines and most of its
  important cities.

39
Bakufu - Han Relations

• There were about 250 han (domains) in Japan. The
  internal government of the hans was largely left
  to individual daimyo, as long as they paid their
  taxes.
• By the 17th Century, 80 of samurai received a
  stipend by the 18th Century 90 received a
  stipend. Only 10 retained local roots.
• The balance between the central government and
  the hans was in constant flux, varying with the
  strength of the shogun and various hans

40
Economic and Social Change

• Peace brought prosperity and change.
• Cultivated acreage doubled and multiple-cropping
  became common. Market networks grew.
• The population rose from 18 million to 33.1
  million in the 1800s.
• Villages became largely self-governing as the
  samurai moved to castle towns that became han
  capitals.
• Wealthy villagers invested in rural industries
  such as vegetable oil processing, sake brewing,
  soy sauce and paper.
• Merchants became increasingly powerful, providing
  banking services and eventually loans to the
  powerful.

41
Changing Role of Samurai

• Many samurai became han or bakufu bureaucrats.
• The right to wear two swords remained the badge
  of their inherited status, but their martial
  skills were seldom used.
• The peacetime samurai sought to combine the roles
  of Confucian scholar and warrior. Yamaga Soko
  pioneered this fusion, modern bushido.

42
Genroku Culture

• The entrance to Shinyoshiwara, Edos floating
  world of 1903. Genroku last from 1688 to 1704.

43
The Floating World

• In a brief 50 year period, Yoshiwara produced a
  series of outstanding art forms.
• Ukiyo-e pictures, primarily wood block prints, of
  the floating world. Masanobu was the leading
  artist and publisher. In later years, landscape
  prints flourished.
• Kabuki and Bunraku theater. Many plays were
  written by Chikamatsu, Japans Shakespeare.
• Haikai and Haiku poetry. Matsuo Basho is famous
  for the latter

Print of a Kabuki actor.
44
WesternIntrusion

• The Portuguese opened the way.
• India 1498
• Goa 1510
• Malacca-1511
• China 1514
• Japan 1543
• Macao-1557
• Spain trailed in the Philippines in 1571.

45
The Objectives and Players

• The Portuguese and Spanish had two objectives
• Profitable Trade. To break the Arab, Venetian
  and Genoese monopoly on spices and other items.
• Spread Christianity and combat the spread of
  Islam.
• The missionary players were
• Jesuits (Society of Jesus).
• Dominicans.
• Franciscans.
• The Pope Line of Demarcation.

Ignatius Loyola, principal founder of the
Jesuits
46
Initial Reception

• During the Tang and Sung Dynasties, Arab and
  Persian traders were free to trade and reside in
  Chinese ports and cities.
• The first Portuguese initially met with a
  friendly welcome. Fernado dAndrada was even
  received at court.
• The Chinese reception changed when Simon
  dAndrada began pirating on the Pearl River.
• When Alphonso de Mello appeared off Canton in
  1522, the Chinese attacked and sunk his ships.
  The Portuguese did not return until 1542.

47
Jesuits in Japan

• Francis Xavier landed on Kagoshima Island in
  1549. The reception was warm. He was tall (51),
  blue eyed and martial in his bearing. He was
  immediately impressed with the character and
  appearance of the Japanese.
• Xavier learned the language and customs quickly,
  including bathing. The Japanese were receptive
  to the Christian message, although they may have
  initially thought it to be a form of Buddhism.

Saint Francis Xavier
48
Jesuit Success.

• By 1614, the Jesuits had achieved 300,000
  converts.
• Xavier had met with Nobunaga and Hideyoshi, who
  were favorably impressed. Hideyoshi even wore a
  Rosary. He saw Christianity as a way to combat
  Buddhism and increase trade.
• Ieyasu initially favored Christianity, as well.
• Western clothing became a fad.
• The Japanese loved the trade. The Jesuits even
  administered the port of Nagasaki for seven
  years.

49
What Went Wrong

• The Franciscans arrived from the Philippines in
  1592. In 1597, Hideyoshi crucified six
  Franciscans and 18 converts when the pilot of
  their ship boasted of Spanish power and
  intentions.
• The Dutch and English arrived in the early
  1600s. Will Adams piloted the first Dutch ship.
• The questions faced by the Japanese were
• Would Japan be in jeopardy of colonization from
  the Philippines by the Spanish?
• Would the Franciscan social message lead to
  insurrection?

50
Exclusion Policy

• A serious campaign began in 1614 to expel
  missionaries and suppress Christianity.
• 40,000 persons were killed.
• 3,000 have been recognized as martyrs by the
  Vatican.
• The Shimabara Rebellion (1637-38) led to 37,000
  deaths. The rebels fought under Christian flags
  with slogans written in Portuguese.
• All Europeans were expelled except for the Dutch
  on Deshima Island, Nagasaki.

Church of the Holy Martyrs of Japan, Japan,
Missouri.
51
Entry to China

• Francis Xaviers entry into Japan was eased by
  his friendship Anjiro, a Samurai.
• Entry to China proved much more difficult. Xavier
  died on Shangchuan Island in 1552 waiting entry.
• Organizational support for Jesuit missions was
  established by Alessandro Valignano..
• Matteo Riccis entry into China was facilitated
  by his training in Goa, Malacca and Macao.

Alessandro Valignano
52
Matteo Ricci

• Was a Jesuit and first successful Christian
  missionary to China. He was presented at the
  court of Wanli in 1601. He is buried in Beijing.
• He learned classical Chinese and styled himself a
  Western Confucian. His amazing gift with
  languages, astounding memory and knowledge of
  mathematics, astronomy and cartography gained him
  the opportunity to proselytize to the elite.
• The Jesuits continued their mission in China
  during the Qing Dynasty.

Matteo Ricci 1552-1610
53
The Rites Controversy

• The Matteo Ricci gained a privileged place in the
  Chinese imperial court for the Jesuits.
• The controversy involved the Dominicans, who
  accused the Jesuits of compromising the Christian
  message. Three questions emerged.
• Was Confucianism a religion or a philosophy?
• Could one participate in court rituals and not be
  participating in a religious ceremony?
• Should the word Tien or Shang ti be used for
  God?
• In 1704, the Pope condemned Chinese rituals. By
  1724, Christianity was proscribed.

54
Qing Dynasty

• The Qing Dynasty was established by the Manchus.
  It replaced the Ming and lasted from 1644 to
  1912.

55
Founding the Later Jin

• Nurhaci was the founder of the Jurchen state and
  Khan of the Later Jin. He
• Established his capital at Shenyang.
• Developed a script with which to write the
  Jurchen language.
• Established the banner system.
• Wrote the Seven Vexations.
• Nurhaci died from wounds suffered in a defeat by
  Ming forces equipped with Portuguese cannon.
• He was succeeded by his son, Hong Taiji who
  founded the Qing Dynasty.

Nurhaci (1558-1626)
56
The Banner System

• Nurhaci established the first four banners in
  1601. They became the model for the organization
  of his army and Manchu society.
• The basic unit was a company of 300 men. The
  number of companies per banner varied. The
  averaged banner was composed of 7,500 warriors.
• By 1644, there were eight Manchu, eight Mongol
  and eight Chinese banners, a total of 150,000 men
  plus their families.

The colors of the first four banners were yellow,
white, red and blue. These were repeated with
borders for the next four. Green was civilian.
57
Consolidation

• The Qing sought Chinese assent to its rule by
• Honoring the deceased Ming emperor.
• Adopting familiar governmental forms.
• Holding examinations.
• The north accepted the Qing the south did not. A
  massacre occurred in Yangzhou Nanjing was
  bitterly fought.
• Some areas remained in revolt for over 40 years.

Han Chinese males were forced to wear their hair
in the Manchu manner as a sign of submission. The
picture is of Jet Lee.
58
Koxinga

• Koxinga was a major leader of the resistance in
  the S.E. and a supporter of Ming Prince Tang.
• His mother was the daughter of a samurai his
  father was a Chinese pirate.
• He controlled Fujian and the Southeast Coast. In
  1662, he took refuge on Taiwan and expelled the
  Dutch. He died of Malaria.

Koxinga Temple in Tainan, Taiwan. Koxingas real
name was Zheng Chenggong (1624-1662). He is a
hero of books and movies, both Communist and
Nationalist.
59
Revolt of the Three Feudatories

• Three Chinese generals who assisted the Qing were
  rewarded with governorships. Wu Sangui (Yunnan),
  Shang Kexi (Guangdong) and Geng Jingzhong
  (Fujian). They became almost autonomous rulers.
• Wu Sanguis influence extended to adjoining
  provinces, causing alarm in the Manchu court.
  Emperor Kangxi saw the three as a threat.
• War ensued in 1673. It took until 1683 to
  suppress the feudatories.

60
Form Vs. Substance

• 10 million Manchus vs. 350 million Chinese. To
  preclude absorption, yet provide representation
• Governmental Ministries- Each controlled by a
  Manchu prince with four presidents two Manchu,
  one Mongol one Chinese.
• Civil Service Positions-One half were reserved
  for Manchus, the remainder were divided between
  north and south Chinese.
• Civil Service Examinations- A separate
  examination system was established for Manchus.

61
Leadership Struggle

• When Manchu forces entered Peking thanks to Wu
  Sanguei, their leadership situation was tenuous.
• Hong Taiji had died in 1644 and a child (Shunzhi)
  was placed on the throne as a compromise between
  competing interests.
• Dorgon, Nurhacis 14th son, became regent and
  effective ruler. He died in 1650 at the age of
  39.
• Shunzhi died in 1654. He was succeeded by 8 year
  old Kangxi. Bitter infighting between co-regents
  followed until 1669, when Kangxi assumed control
  by having the regent Oboi arrested.

62
Kangxi

• From the reign of Kangxi thru the 18th Century,
  the economy and culture of China flourished.
  Kangxis accomplishments included
• Completing conquest of China.
• Negotiating the Treaty of Nerchinsk with Russia
  in 1689.
• Crushing a Mongol revolt in 1696-97.
• Conquering Tibet and installed a pro-Chinese
  Dalai Lama.
• Closing Manchuria to Chinese immigration.
• Prohibiting intermarriage with Chinese and foot
  binding by Manchu women.

Kangxi (r. 1662-1722)
63
Yongzheng and Qianlong

• Emperor Yongzhengs Accomplishments
• Intervened in Tibet a second time (1717-18).
• Made fiscal reforms. Magistrates were to receive
  sufficient stipends on which to live.
• Secured succession of heir by sealing name in a
  box.
• Emperor Qianlongs Accomplishments
• Sponsored a 36,000 volume catalog of important
  works of Chinese culture.
• Conquered Mongolia, Annam, Burma and Nepal.
• Annexed Chinese Turkestan (Xinjiang) and Ili.
• Intervened in Vietnam to restore the Le Dynasty
  only to suffer a major defeat.

64
The Economy

• Agriculture
• Superior strains of rice, better irrigation
  better fertilizer increased the food supply.
• Corn, sweet potatoes, and peanuts were introduced
  from America.
• Industry and Commerce
• Ceramics, cotton, silk, hemp, paper, metals, tea,
  sugar, tobacco all became major trade items.
• Canals formed an excellent infrastructure.
• Commercial banking was highly developed.
• Maritime trade (Chinese bottoms) eclipsed the
  Silk Rd.

65
Social Change

• The population topped 300 million and was
  increasingly urbanized.
• Disparity in income was striking. Merchants
  became extremely wealthy Manchu Bannermen became
  impoverished.
• The number of Civil Service positions remained
  stagnate the number of candidates more than
  doubled. Examination criteria were formalistic.
• The mother-in-law dominated the extended family.

66
Foot-binding
A plaster casting of a foot (above). Especially
designed shoes for bound feet.

• Foot-binding was a mark of status and was
  more common in the South.
• .

67
Dynastic Decline

• Decline was the product of many things.
• The population had expanded beyond the ability of
  agriculture to support it
• Population pressure on the land led to
  deforestation, soil erosion, silting and
  flooding.
• Qianlongs wars and dynastic extravagance drained
  the treasury of 150,200,000 taels and almost
  bankrupted the country.
• Corruption and incompetence were rampant,
  e.g.,the Manchu guards officer Heshen.
• The White Lotus Rebellion (1796-1804) followed by
  the Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864) and similar
  events .

68
White Lotus Rebellion

• The rebellion (1796-1804) affected Sichuan,
  Hubei, Henan, Gansu and Shaanxi.
• White Lotus believers held that Maitreyas return
  was imminent, the Ming would be restored and the
  people would be rescued from their suffering.
• The rebellion was connected to the earlier Yuan
  Red Turban Rebellion and the Boxer Rebellion of
  1900.

The White Lotus was the symbol of the movement.
69
End Part IV

• Pine, Plum and Cranes, 1759 AD, by Shen Quan
  (1682 -1760). Hanging scroll, ink and color on
  silk. The Palace Museum, Beijing