Chapter 2, Section 2

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Chapter 2, Section 2

• Causation in Science

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The Nature of Causation

• Events occur in predictable, nonrandom ways
• Social scientists look for the factors that cause
  social events to happen

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The Nature of Causation

• Social events are usually too complex to be
  explained by any single factor
• Multiple causation an event occurs as a result
  of several factors working in combination
• What causes crime?
• Many factors peer pressure, use of drugs,
  hopeless poverty, etc
• Each single factor is called a variable

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Variables and Correlations

• A variable is a characteristic age, education,
  occupation that is subject to change
• Quantitative can be measured and given a
  numerical value
• Qualitative identified by membership in a
  category
• either/or or yes/no

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Variables and Correlations

• Independent variable Causes something to occur
• Researcher changes or looks for changes in this
  variable
• Dependent variable results from the change in
  the independent variable
• Intervening variable influences the
  relationship between an independent and a
  dependent variable

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Variables and Correlations

• Correlation measures how things are related to
  one another
• Positive correlation both the independent and
  the dependent variable change in the same
  direction
• Ex. Study more higher test grade
• Negative correlation variables change in
  opposite directions
• Ex. Party more lower test grade

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Variables and Correlations

• It is important to remember that CORRELATION DOES
  NOT MEAN CAUSATION
• Just because a correlation exists, it does not
  necessarily mean a cause-and-effect relationship
  exists!!!
• It is much easier to show a correlation between
  two variables than it is to show causation

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Standards for Showing Causation

• In a causal relationship, one variable actually
  causes the other to occur
• Three standards are usually used to determine
  causal relationships

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Standards for Showing Causation

• Standard 1
• Two variables must be correlated
• Standard 2
• All other possible factors must be taken into
  account
• Standard 3
• A change in the independent variable must occur
  before a change in the dependent variable can
  occur

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Chapter 2, Section 3

• Procedures and Ethics in Research

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Steps for Doing Research

• Scientific method involves the pursuit of
  knowledge in a systematic way
• Step 1 Identify the Problem
• Choose an object or topic for study
• Step 2 Review the Literature
• Find out about earlier research done on the topic
  you are studying

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Steps for Doing Research

• Step 3 Formulate Hypotheses
• A testable statement of relationships among
  well-defined variables
• Step 4 Develop a research design
• States the procedures the researcher will follow
  for collecting and analyzing data
• Step 5 Collect data
• 3 basic ways asking people questions, observing
  behavior, analyzing existing materials and records

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Steps for Doing Research

• Step 6 Analyze data
• Analyze whether the hypotheses are supported
• Step 7 State findings and conclusions
• State conclusions, describe methods, formally
  accept, reject, or modify hypotheses

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Ethics in Social Research

• Most of the time sociologists protect the rights
  of research subjects and avoid deceiving or
  harming them
• What is sociologys code of ethics?
• Showing Objectivity
• Using superior research standards
• Reporting findings and methods truthfully
• Protecting the rights, privacy, integrity,
  dignity, and freedom of research subjects

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Assignment

• Chapter 2 Vocabulary crossword
• Section 3 Assessment p. 61 (1, a g)
• Read Modern Wisdom Urban Legends and answer
  questions 1 4
• Chapter 2 Quiz tomorrow!!