Modern Political Theory

1
Modern Political Theory

• The Effectual Truth

2
Machivellis Intention

• Since my intent is to write something useful to
  whoever understands it, it has appeared to me
  more fitting to go directly to the effectual
  truth of the thing than to the imagination of
  it. Machiavelli, The Prince, Chapter XV
• The effectual truth Machiavelli, unlike the
  ancient political philosophers, will consider
  politics only as it is and not imagine how it
  could be (as Aristotle did in his discussion of
  the great-souled man).
• What are the facts about politics?

3
Machiavellis Realism

• For one can say this generally of men that they
  are ungrateful, fickle, pretenders and
  dissemblers, evaders of danger, eager for gain.
  While you do them good, they are yours, offering
  you their blood, property, lives, and children,
  as I said above, when the need for them is far
  away but, when it is close to you they revolt.
• So, politically Machiavelli argues the prudent
  prince should count on this about men and thus
  it is much safer to be feared than loved. Why?
  
• Men have less hesitation to offend one who makes
  himself loved than one who makes himself feared
  for love is held by a chain of obligation, which
  because men are wicked, is broken at every
  opportunity for their own utility, but fear is
  held by a dread of punishment that never forsakes
  you.

4
What is necessary to maintain power?

• Machiavelli claims immediately after the passage
  just cited that the prince should nonetheless
  make himself feared in such a mode that if he
  does not acquire love, he escapes hatred, because
  being feared and not being hated can go together
  very well. This he will always do if he abstains
  from the property of his citizens and his
  subjects, and from their women.But above all, he
  must abstain from the property of others, because
  men forget the death of a father more quickly
  than the loss of a patrimony.
• A prince who worries only about keeping his power
  is better for the common good than a prince who
  seeks to be virtuous. For instance, Machiavelli
  writes if one wants to maintain a name for
  liberality among men, it is necessary not to
  leave out any kind of lavish display, so that a
  prince who has done this will always consume all
  his resources in such deeds. In the end it will
  be necessary, if he wants to maintain a name for
  liberality, to burden the people extraordinarily,
  to be rigorous with taxes, and to do all those
  things that can be done to get money.
• Were all better off, Machiavelli argues, if the
  prince concerns himself only with his own good.
  
• This Machiavellian argument that the selfishness
  of the prince is better for society very much
  influences the entire way we think politically,
  i.e. capitalism.

5
Hobbes A New Beginning

• Machiavellis concern for the effectual truth,
  i.e. for thinking of politics purely insofar as
  our thoughts can be put into practice, influences
  tremendously one of the most significant founders
  of the modern conception of politics Hobbes
• Hobbes describes men exactly as he finds them,
  mincing no words in his description of our
  natures.
• From this very realistic understanding of our
  natures, Hobbes attempts to build a conception of
  politics that does not, in any way, ask us to
  depart from our natures. Instead, he attempts to
  show us that we create a government purely out of
  our selfishness and government can continue based
  purely upon our selfishness.
• Hobbess argument thus marks a new beginning in
  the conception of politics.
• Instead of thinking about politics, as Aristotle
  does, in terms of what men can use the city to
  achieve, Hobbes thinks about politics in terms of
  how a peaceful government can be achieved without
  asking men to advance beyond their selfish
  natures.

6
Hobbes on Mans Anti-Social Nature

• Hobbes claims Men have no pleasure, (but on the
  contrary a greate deal of griefe) in keeping
  company, where there is no power able to over-awe
  them all.
• In other words, whereas in Aristotle men were in
  the first place naturally political because they
  are naturally social, in Hobbes we appear to take
  not pleasure in our fellow men. Naturally, we
  dont like to be around one another. Nature, as
  he says at one point, disassociates us.

7
The State of Nature

• Because were naturally anti-social, without
  government were in a constant state of war with
  one another. During the time men live without a
  common Power to keep them all in awe, they are in
  that condition which is called Warre and such a
  warre, as is of every man, against every man.
• This natural condition is truly awful for
  everyone involved In such a condition, there is
  no place for Industry because the fruit thereof
  is uncertain and consequently no Culture of the
  Earth no Navigation, nor use of the commodities
  that may be imported by Sea no commodious
  building no Instruments of moving, and removing
  such things as requre much force no Knowledge of
  the face of the Earth no account of Time no
  Arts no Letters no Society and which is worst
  of all, continuall feare, and danger of violent
  death and the life of man, solitary, poore,
  nasty, brutish, and short.

8
Equality in light of the State of Nature

• Because of Hobbess argument about the state of
  nature, he concludes in the first place that man
  is naturally equal.
• This is because though there bee found one man
  sometimes manifestly stronger in body, or of
  quicker mind then another, yet when all is
  reckoned together, the difference between man,
  and man, is not so considerable, as that one man
  can thereupon claim to himself any benefit, to
  which another may not pretend, as well as he.
  For as to the strength of body, the weakest has
  strength enough to kill the strongest, either by
  secret machination, or by confederacy with
  others, that are in the same danger with
  himselfe.
• In other words, though men might be quite
  different than another
• Those differences dont constitute a claim to
  unequal treatment. There is no obligation of a
  weaker man to submit to a stronger man in the
  state of nature.
• Those differences can be overcome in the state of
  nature by machination even the strong have to
  sleep and are susceptible to a weak mans dagger
  while they sleep.

9
Justice in light of the State of Nature

• Hobbes also concludes the following from his
  consideration of the state of nature. Without
  government, nothing can be Unjust. The notions
  of Right and Wrong, Justice and Injustice have
  there no place. Where there is no common power,
  there is no Law where no Law, no Injustice.
• So, according to Hobbes, what we call justice and
  injustice arise entirely from what we call
  justice and injustice under the laws. Without
  those laws, there is no injustice.

10
How Do We Get Out?

• Given Hobbess description of the state of
  nature, how do we get out of it? This isnt so
  easy as saying form a society because Hobbes
  argues were naturally anti-social. So, what do
  we do?
• In the first place Hobbes says, that there are
  certain aspects of mans nature that encline men
  to peace. These are Feare of Death Desire of
  such things as are necessary to commodious
  living and a Hope by their Industry to obtain
  them.
• These passions suggest certain reasonable
  Articles of Peace, or Laws of Nature which
  set down what man needs to do to escape the state
  of nature.

11
Two Important Laws of Nature

• Every man, ought to endeavour Peace, as farre as
  he has hope of obtaining it
• That a man be willing, when others are so too,
  as farre-forth, as for Peace, and defence of
  himself he shall think it necessary, to lay down
  this right to all things and be contented with
  so much liberty against other men, as he would
  allow other men against himself.
• Both laws tie our obligations to other men to
  our own immediate interests.

12
The Great Leviathan

• Because men are naturally anti-social, unlike
  bees and cattle who naturally do what is both
  good for the group and good for themselves (while
  for men their private good differs substantially
  from the common good), men must generate a
  Common Power, to keep them in awe, and to direct
  their actions to the Common Benefit.
• Men mutually give up the right of governing
  themselves so long as everyone else gives up that
  same right. They give this right up to a common
  power which can use its power to secure the
  Common Peace and Safetie.
• The only way to erect such a Common Power as may
  be able to defend them from the invasion of
  Forraigners, and the injuries of one another, and
  thereby to secure them in such sort, as that by
  their owne industrie, and by the fruites of the
  Earth, they may nourish themselves and live
  contentedly is, to conferre all their power and
  strength upon one Man, or upon one Assembly of
  men, that may reduce all their Wills, by
  plurality of voices, unto one Will.
• Government emerges as the solution to the biggest
  collective action problem

13
Locke on Toleration

• Besides reconceiving of the purpose of politics,
  i.e. to provide us security so as to allow us to
  pursue our path in the manner we choose, modern
  political theorists also take on the teaching of
  the Catholic Church that we encountered in
  Augustine and Aquinas
• Lockes argument is two-fold
• Using persecution to create belief is ineffective
  and not in keeping with Christianity
• Using civil government in the manner that
  Augustine calls for is inconsistent with the
  purposes of civil government

14
Persecution Ineffective and Inconsistent with
Christianity

• 1) Ineffective If anyone maintain that men
  ought to be compelled by fire and sword to
  profess certain doctrines, and conform to this or
  that exterior worship, without any regard unto
  their morals if anyone endeavor to convert those
  that are erroneous unto the faith, by forcing
  them to profess things that they do not believe
  and allowing them to practice things that the
  Gospel does not permit, it cannot be doubted
  indeed but such a one is desirous to have a
  numerous assembly joined in the same profession
  with himself but that he principally intends by
  those means to compose a truly Christian Church
  is altogether incredible. Why?
• Such is the nature of the understanding, that it
  cannot be compelled to the belief of anything by
  outward force.
• 2) Inconsistent Toleration is the chief
  characteristic mark of the true Church.
• A true Christian must embrace Christianity in own
  heart a true Christian tolerates him who havent
  found his path to God

15
The Limited Sphere of Government

• Locke understands the proper sphere of civil
  government in a manner that is similar to Hobbes
  and different than Aristotles and the
  Christians.
• The commonwealth seems to me to be a society of
  men constituted only for the procuring,
  preserving, and advancing their own civil
  interests. Civil interests I call life, liberty,
  heath, and indolency of body and the possession
  of outward things, such as money, lands, houses,
  furniture, and the like.