Sea Power and Maritime Affairs

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Sea Power and Maritime Affairs

• Lesson 3 Oceanic Sea Power and the Emergence of
  European Nation States, 1400s-1763

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Learning Objectives

• Comprehend the importance of sea borne commerce
  and square-rigged ocean-going merchantmen and
  warships to Europe's emergence from the Middle
  Ages.
• Know the important voyages of discovery and the
  reasons they were organized.
• Comprehend the succession of great maritime
  powers in the 15th through the 17th centuries
  (Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, Britain) and
  the reasons for the rise of each and the decline
  of all except Britain.

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Learning Objectives

• Comprehend the causes and significance of the
  Grand Armada (1586-1588) to include the
  transition from galley warfare to that between
  sailing ships mounting cannon in broadsides.
• Comprehend the important historical events and
  strategic goals of France and Britain in their
  confrontations from the late 1600s to 1763.

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Learning Objectives

• Know the major effects of events in Anglo-French
  relations on their colonial possessions in North
  America and around the world from the late 1600s
  to 1763.

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Remember our Themes!

• The Navy as an Instrument of Foreign Policy
• Interaction between Congress and the Navy
• Interservice Relations
• Technology
• Leadership
• Strategy and Tactics
• Evolution of Naval Doctrine

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Age of Sail

• The 16th Century through the 19th Century.

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Western Europe Emerges

• Major player in international trade and commerce
• Dissimilar climate, geography, and peoples
• Navigable rivers and surrounding coastal waters
• Growth of middle class of artisans, merchants,
  and tradesmen.
• Development of systems of exchange, banking,
  investment, and insurance.
• Rise in disposable income created demands for
  foods and goods from other continents.

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Sailing Ships

• Galleys useless on Atlantic Ocean due to high sea
  states and poor weather.
• Merchant ships developed into caravels and then
  galleons.
• Forecastles and aftercastles developed.
• Initially grappling hooks are used for boarding
  enemy ships, then cannon are used to attack at
  longer range.
• Improvements in navigation.
• Magnetic compass and dead reckoning or DR.
• Angle of stars above the horizon provided
  latitude.
• Allowed longer voyages away from land.

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Age of Exploration

• Portugal Prince Henry the Navigator
• Bartholomew Diaz - Cape of Good Hope - 1486
• Vasco da Gama - India - 1497 -- Conflict with
  Arabs.
• Cabral - Brazil - 1500
• Spain - Large empire established in the Americas.
• Columbus - Americas - 1492
• Named for Amerigo Vespucci
• Magellan - Circumnavigation of the Globe -
  1519-1522
• The Conquistadors of America
• Balboa - Panama - 1513
• Ponce de Leon - Florida - 1513
• Cortez - Mexico (Aztec Empire) - 1520
• Pizarro - Peru (Inca Empire) - 1532

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Prince HenryofPortugal

• The Navigator

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Vasco de Gama
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ChristopherColumbus

• Admiral
• of the
• Ocean Seas

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Ferdinand Magellan
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Early European Colonization

• Treaty of Tordesillas - 1494
• Papal division of the world to regulate
  exploration and colonization by Portugal and
  Spain.
• England, Holland, and France begin exploration -
  1500s.
• Ignore Treaty of Tordesillas.
• European competition for overseas colonies
  begins.
• Mercantilism - Colonies needed to support
  economic growth.
• Colonies established in areas in Caribbean and
  Latin America not already claimed by Portugal and
  Spain.
• England Eastern coast of present-day United
  States.
• France Canada and Louisiana
• Holland New York area, South Africa and
  challenge of Portugal in Indian Ocean and East
  Indies.

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Spain vs. England (1567-1604)

• Spain Superpower
• Conflicts with France for N Europe, Turkey for
  the Med.
• Spanish Netherlands revolts and serves as
  distraction from quest for Sea Control.
• Spanish king, Philip II sends large army to
  Netherlands, 1566.
• Englands options limited, creates Cold War

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KingPhillip II
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QueenElizabeth I
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The Spanish Armada, 1567-1585
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1588 - The Spanish Armada

• English Fleet
• 34 large warships
• 163 smaller vessels
• 2,000 guns
• 16,000 men
• Advantage
• Range/Accuracy of Weapons
• Maneuverability
• Leadership

• Spanish Armada
• 62 large warships
• 68 smaller vessels
• 1,100 guns
• 27,000 men
• Advantage
• Pounds per Gun
• Total weight of broadside.
• Personnel

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The English Upper Hand

• Spanish Duke of Medina Sidonia
• English Charles Howard of Effingham, Lord
  Admiral of England
• Tactics
• Weather Gage effectively utilized by British.
• Held upwind position.
• Now able to off-fight with longer range guns.
• Previously ships had to make physical contact to
  engage.
• Maneuverability now more important.
• English had superior seamanship skills.

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Routeof theSpanish Armada
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Defeat of the Spanish Armada

• Spanish defeated in English Channel.
• Many Spanish ships wrecked in North Sea storm.
• Spain and its empire begin a long period of
  decline.
• England begins to establish overseas colonies -
  America.
• English Lesson
• Decisions at sea were henceforth to be reached
  not by hand-to-hand combat but with the gun

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England sends a fleet to fight the Spanish
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Rise of English Sea Power

• Mid-1500s - England begins to develop a standing
  fighting fleet under Henry VIII.
• Sea power vital to English (British) victory in a
  series of conflicts with other European powers
• Spain (1567-1604)
• Holland (1652-1674)
• France (1689-1815)
• English Navy is of primary importance to the
  defense of England and its growing overseas
  empire.
• Designated Royal Navy in 1660 by King Charles II.
• England (including Wales) and Scotland form
  United Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707 and add
  Ireland in 1801.
• British Empire continues to grow overseas.
• Naval tactics developed and formalized.

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Men of War

• Forecastles and Aftercastles eliminated.
• Increased speed and stability.
• Multiple decks with gunports.
• More guns added.
• Full-rigging.
• Faster speeds.
• Many sailors.
• Needed to man sails and guns.

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MenofWar

• Propulsion Sail
• Weapons Guns (Broadside)
• Formation Line-Ahead
• Rate Guns Decks Notes
• 1 gt 100 3 Ships of the Line (Flag)
• 2 80-100 3 Ships of the Line (Flag)
• 3 60-80 2 Ships of the Line (Private)
• 4 50-60 1-2 Cruisers (Flag)
• 5 30-44 1 Cruisers (Frigates)
• 6 20-28 1 Cruisers (Sloops, Brigs
  Schooners)

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Man of War- Ship of the Line
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Anglo-Dutch Wars (1652-1674)

• Series of three naval wars. (1652-54, 1665-67,
  1672-74)
• Dutch United Provinces gain maritime trade
  monopolies.
• Use dominant sea power to advantage after
  independence from Spain in 1609.
• Challenged by Cromwells England Builds the Navy
• Navigation Act, 1651

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Anglo-Dutch Wars (1652-1674)

• Dutch weaknesses
• Dependent upon sea for livelihood
• Had to fortify land frontier
• Did not have ships of the line
• Not tactically savvy (vis-à-vis British)

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Anglo-Dutch Wars (1652-1674)

• English naval tactics developed Fighting
  Instructions
• Line ahead formations become standard.
• Provides ability to fire broadsides at enemy
  fleet.
• Royal Navy debates between Formal and Melee
  schools.
• Dutch loses possessions in North America.
• Hudson Valley and New Amsterdam (New York City)
• Fatal weaknesses Dependent on sea, threats from
  other continental powers, configured for shallow
  water.

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Line Ahead Formations
Wind
Weather Gage
Lee Gage
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Fleet Advantages

• Weather Gage
• Held by the upwind fleet.
• Ability to determine the time and range of
  engagement of the enemy fleet.
• Lee Gage
• Held by the downwind fleet.
• Ability to determine the time of disengagement
  from the enemy fleet.

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Line Ahead Formations
Wind
Weather Gage
Lee Gage
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Ships of the Line

• Only heavily gunned ships able to remain in line
  ahead formation during battle.
• Greater than 80 guns required.
• Smaller ships (cruisers) detached for patrol,
  reconnaissance, blockade, and attacks on enemy
  merchant ships (commerce raiding).
• Fleet with better gunnery skills can gain the
  advantage.
• Importance of training sailors to fire guns
  rapidly and accurately.

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Formal Tactics
Wind
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Formal Tactics
Wind
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Formal Tactics
Wind
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Melee Tactics Theory

• To gain the advantage, one needs to concentrate
  firepower against the enemy fleet.
• Allows a superior weight of broadside.
• A conterminous line-ahead formation does not
  allow firepower to be massed.
• Must maneuver the fleet to gain the advantage in
  firepower.
• Massing
• Doubling
• Breaking the Line

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Melee Tactics
Wind
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Melee Tactics
Wind
Massing
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Melee Tactics
Wind
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Melee Tactics
Wind
Doubling
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Melee Tactics
Wind
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Melee Tactics
Wind
Breaking the Line
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Anglo-French Conflicts (1689-1775)

• Great Britain fears France's threat to become
  militarily dominant in Europe.
• Continental element
• France Army 5-to1 to the British
• Britain monetarily and militarily subsidies her
  continental allies
• Maritime element
• Britain prospered through commerce across the
  Atlantic
• Royal Navy shows the flag from warships
• Britain gaining timber and Naval supplies from
  the Baltic.
• Britain maintained a fleet twice the size of
  France
• Permanent Fighting Instructions adopted by Royal
  Navy.
• Results of sea battles support the use of formal
  tactics.

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PermanentFighting Instructions
Wind
Van
Rear
Center
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Tactics

• French Navy - Defensive
• Desired to hold the lee gage.
• Able to retire in order to save ships.
• Unable to devote resources to Navy due to wars in
  Europe.
• Fired on the up roll to target rigging (masts
  and sails).
• Reduce British ability to maneuver into attack
  position.
• Few British casualties.
• Royal Navy - Offensive
• Desired to hold the weather gage.
• Advantage to the attacking fleet.
• Fired on the down roll into the enemy hulls
• Splinters and debris killed and maimed French gun
  crews.
• High numbers of French casualties.

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Wind
British Fleet
French Fleet
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Anglo-French Conflicts (1689-1775)

• War of English Succession (1689-1697)
• English goal Contain French aggression
  maintain balance of power on continent of Europe.
  
• Battle of Beachy Head (1690), Battle of Barfleur
  (1692)
• Louis XIV lost the war France abandoned its
  continental conquests acknowledged William of
  Orange as King of England.
• War of Spanish Succession (1703-1713)
• Britain acquires possessions of France and her
  allies (e.g., Spain, Gibraltar)
• Battle of Malaga Tactically indecisive, but
  French "flinched under bombardment" and
  retreated to port.
• Great Britain was now leader in maritime commerce
  and clearly the "Mistress of the Seas."

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Seven Years War (1756-1763)
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Battle for Minorca 20 May 1756

• April 1756 French amphibious landing on Minorca
• British attempt to send reinforcements
• Formal Fighting Instructions prevented maneuvers
• Refocused interest on more flexible tactics

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Seven Years War (1756-1763)

• Significance
• Geopolitical Genuine world war fought in German
  states, Mediterranean, Canada, West Indies,
  India, Africa, and Philippines.
• Strategic Classic example of conflict between
  land power (France) and sea power (England).
• Great Britain Key to victory
• Pitt's Plan of William Pitt the Elder.
• Hitting - Attack overseas colonies of France
  and Spain.
• Holding - French battle fleet through blockade
  of ports.
• Support continental allies Frederick the Great
  of Prussia.

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Pitts Plan

• Subsidize one or more allies on Continent
• Use own fleet to
• raid enemy coasts, thereby holding enemy troops
  away from allies
• blockade enemy and destroy his fleet
• convoy and support own troops in seizing enemys
  overseas colonies and associated seaborne trade

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Seven Years War (1756-1763)

• French counter-strategy
• Raid British maritime commerce
• Defend French Colonies
• Try to invade England
• Known as French and Indian War in America.
• British Siege of Quebec - 1759.
• Wolfe defeats Montcalm on the Plains of Abraham.
• British defeat French at Battle of Quiberon Bay -
  1759.
• Peace of Paris - 1763
• Great Britain obtains Canada, U.S. East of
  Mississippi River to Appalachian Mts., Florida,
  and much of India.

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Siege of Quebec
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Battle of Quiberon Bay - 1759

• Royal Navy establishes absolute control of the
  sea.
• French plan to invade Great Britain is thwarted.

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Ongoing debate????

• Lessons from the Seven Years War
• Potter, Nimitz, Mahan will conclude
• Naval power, or sea power, was "pervasive and
  inexorable."
• Naval predominance was decisive in a world war.
• Paul Kennedy will conclude
• Sea power was only one component of British
  strategy during the period.
• A "continental" element was always present in the
  British considerations.