Causes of Mughal Rebellion-

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Causes of Mughal Rebellion-

• Richards v. Aligarh School

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Bigotry, Economy, or, the State as victim of its
own success?

• Early 20th C. historians and popular history
  still identify religious discrimination as the
  primary motivator of rebellions under Aurganzeb
• More recently the economic arguments put forward
  by Richards and historians of the Aligarh school
  (Marxist) have gained ground (look for refs. to
  Habib in text)
• More nuanced analysis of peasant mobility

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Rajputs and Aurangzeb

• Religious policy inconsistent in the case of the
  Rajputs
• Jaswant Singhs conduct in 1658-59 and later as
  an ally of Shivaji put him under suspicion poor
  relations w/ his clan has political roots
• Rajput officers were exempted from the Jizya
• Aurangzeb continued to patronize and support
  other Rajputs during the war with Mewar/Marwar.
  Raja Jai Singh was entrusted with the Deccan
  Campaign until 1666.

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The Marwar-Mewar Rebellion

• Has longer subtextJaswant Singh was a younger
  son who gained the throne of Marwar due to Shah
  Jahans patronage
• His behavior during 1658-59 aroused Aurangzebs
  suspicions, upon his death in 1678, Aurangzeb
  tried to manipulate succession and failed.
• The Marwar and Mewar clans rallied around the
  infant Ajit Singh, Jaswant Singhs son, guerilla
  warfare begins
• Mughal army subdues urban areas, dynastic temples
  are destroyed, tensions are aggravated
• Prince Akbar joins Rajputs, criticizes policies
• Rebellion contained, but trust of two major clans
  broken

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Pressure from Marathas

• The Emperors growing frustrations with the
  Maratha insurgency had an impact on both
  administrative and religious policies
• During suc. Struggle of 1658-59 Shivaji and
  allies capture forts on the Konkan coast
• Raid Deccani and Mughal territory demanding
  revenue
• 1664 Shivaji raids Surat
• Captured by Jai Singh in 1665, escapes in 1666
• 1667 raids Surat again
• 1680 Shivaji dies, sons and wives fight over
  succession

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Maratha Advantages

• Clan-based confederacy, with tight links to local
  peasants, Bijapur
• Bases in remote fortresses in Western Ghat hills
• Use guerilla tactics, not conventional warfare
• Use money from raids and piracy to create revenue

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How are we to assess Aurangzebs early rule?

• Keep in mind that despite dramatic political
  events the revenue system in fact continued to
  expand and be reformed under Aurangzeb
• Greater urban expansion necessitated a change in
  taxation and administrative systemsmerchants had
  been lightly taxed till now, maj. of merchants
  Hindu
• Despite battles the bulk of the
  peasantryespecially khud kasht peasants and
  pioneering zamindars continued to profit from
  economic expansion
• Their success, in fact, was both beneficial and
  problematic for the empireWhy?
• Emperor needed greater cooperation from
  administrative officials to capitalize on these
  expansionsyet ran into political problems due to
  clumsy policies

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How did Aurangzeb fail to build support?

• It is not clear if Aurangzeb always understood
  the complicated power-sharing between Hindus and
  Muslims
• Bijapur Sultanate and Marathas
• Arrangement between Hindu financiers and Muslim
  pioneer farmers in Bengal, an example also found
  elsewhere
• Attitudes of a mixed nobility towards an
  increasingly hybridized culture
• Reactions to Imperial policy were unexpectedmany
  Muslim mansabdars critical of these shifts
• Hindus continue to join system, largest numbers
  by end of Aurangzebs rule

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Questions Framing this Lecture

• How did the Emperor and nobles harness taxes from
  the new economy?
• Who did this new prosperity benefit the most?
• Did it have a role in rebellions?
• Do the changes in religious policy have anything
  to do with the above?

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The Emperors Finances

• The succession struggle had been costly for all
  those involvednobles and princes
• Shortly after coming to the throne Aurangzeb
  announces austerity measures
• Islamic asceticism or personal finances?
• These problems appear to have been temporarily
  resolved. The productivity of the empire helped
  recoup costshowever financial strains re-appear
  by the end of Aurangzebs reign
• The strains are not on the Emperor, who has large
  reserves, gets revenues from most fertile lands

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Mansabdars

• The personal fortunes of mansabdars did not
  recover as quickly
• Inflation of Mansabdari rank and salaries
  increase in the latter half of the period
• While some mansabdars were not impacted, those
  with jagirs in the rebellious areas of the Deccan
  and the North-west had problems

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Sikhs
Rebellions
Rajputs
Jats
Marathas
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Areas of Rebellion in late 17th. C

• All are contained and except for marathas fairly
  small during Aurangzebs liftime
• Sikhs under 10th Guru, Guru Gobind Singh in the
  Punjab hills
• Jats and Satnamis in the north
• Rajputs of Marwar (supporting Ajit Singh)
• Marthas under various chiefs after Shivajis
  death
• After his death they will proliferate

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Zamindars

• The financial picture for Zamindars is mixed. As
  the hereditary chiefs of lineage groups they had
  an ambiguous position.
• Some start becoming Taluqdarsrevenue contractors
  for Jagirdars who have trouble collecting revenue
  in rebellious areas.
• Some remain unabsorbed into the system
• Those in newly-settled areas of expanding
  agriculture (ex. Bengal) were most likely to
  profit.

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Peasants

• Many groups show signs of prosperity,
  particularly in areas of commercial
  agriculturecotton, indigo, silk
• Increased diversification of incomerevenue
  collection, military labor, textile production
  under the putting out system
• Considerable stratificationpeasants in less
  productive areas less likely to profit

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Who benefits from this system in rural areas?

• --what about urban areas?

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Post-1681 developments

• Aurangzeb moves to the Deccan to personally
  supervise
• Complete subjugation of Bijapur and Golconda (by
  1689)
• Suppression of Marathas (never happens)
• Neutralize the rebellion by Prince Akbar
• (Un?)expected problems occur in the north

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Peasant rebellions

• By the end of Aurangzebs reign peasant and
  zamindari groups are already showing signs of
  rebellion
• Increased collusion with Marathas in Deccan
• Jats in central area of Agra/Delhi rebel
• Sikh Jats under Guru Gobind Singh in Panjab
• Afghan and other zamindars in Bengal

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What does the economy have to do with Rebellion?

• The situation is different in the Deccan (discuss
  next week)
• In the north Jats and Afghans had benefited from
  rural agrarian expansion
• More appear as Khud Kasht peasants in Aurangzebs
  time
• While religious motivations are sometimes also
  present, economic/political ones have to be
  considered

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Revenue Collection in the North after 1681

• Increased signs of taluqdari and other forms of
  privitization of state functions
• Incidents of corruption (though these increase
  more quickly after Aurangzebs death in 1707)
• Peasants appear less willing to hand over income
  when imperial supervision is weak
• Lineage zamindars appear to be leaders in
  thisgroups quickly claim warrior caste status

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Geographical/Economic Factors

• Production of muskets becomes cheap in this
  periodrural zamindars and peasants can easily
  afford them
• Some areas, the Lakhi Jungle in Punjab,
  Kathiawar, Maratha territories have local breeds
  of horses (good for guerilla war)
• Groups with pastoral/nomadic backgrounds have
  raiding/cavalry background, some peasants
  (Marathas/jats/afghans) have military experience
  under mughals

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Pasturage
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Case Study Bengal

• Revenue rights and tax concessions for
  newly-settled land auctioned
• In most cases bids purchased by Hindu trading
  groups in cities
• Depute Afghans as pioneer settlers/supervisors
• More land cleared for rice cultivation and
  sericulture
• Complex Hindu patronage of cultural Islamiciation
  of tribes on the agrarian frontier
• When rebellion occurs involves Afghan/Hindu
  Khatri collusion against Imperial officials
• Source Richard Eaton, The Rise of Islam and the
  Bengal Frontier

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Shifting zone Of cultivation
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Case Study Punjab Sikh Rebellion

• Jats in Panjab benefit from agricultural boom,
  Khatris from trade (though these also impacted by
  afghan rebellions)
• Hostility of Mughal Faujdar against both Sikh
  Guru, Gobind Singh and Jats appears to be
  partially involved
• Aurangzeb does not address their repeated
  petitions
• Rebellion occurs after other means of redressing
  problems did not workJats in particular had the
  economic resources and local support to continue
  rebellion long after the Gurus Assassination in
  1708

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Did the Economy have a role in Rebellion?

• A partial case can be madekeep in mind past
  rebellion had been managed through a carrot and
  stick approach
• Peasants have greater resources and lax imperial
  supervision--a perception of unfair treatment
  does appear to tilt the scale in favor of
  rebellion
• Mansabdars whose Jagirs were in rebellious
  territories were squeezed from two sideshad to
  decided between Imperial loyalty and rebellion
  (until 1707 the first is favored). However the
  loyalties are being strained.
• In the Deccan the twin issues of Maratha raids
  and Mughal retaliation squeezed peasantsfanning
  their own resentment of taxes in insecure times