The Middle Ages in Europe

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The Middle Ages in Europe
THE MIDDLE AGES The Middle Ages covers the
900-year period from the political expiration of
the Roman Empire in the 5th century to the
beginnings of modern times in the 14th
century. This era in the history of Western
Europe is often divided into (1) the Early
Middle Ages, also known as the Dark Ages (5th to
10th centuries), a period of disorder and
decline, and (2) the Later Middle Ages (11th to
14th centuries), a period of advance toward a
higher level of civilization.
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THE DECLINE OF CIVILIZATION
The Germanic invasions resulted in the political
collapse of the Roman Empire and the ruin of its
highly developed economic and social system, thus
bringing on the Dark Ages. Decline of Trade and
Industry. Merchants, fearing the seizure of their
goods by highway robbers and pirates, stopped
shipping to distant points and confined their
trade to the local marketplace. The excellent
Roman roads deteriorated. Lacking sufficient
markets, industry shut down. Unemployed workers
moved to rural areas. As trade and industry
dwindled, cities declined in population, and many
disappeared also, money fell into disuse.
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THE DECLINE OF CIVILIZATION 2
Decline of Learning and Culture. During these
unsettled times Roman schools, libraries, and
museums were destroyed, arts and sciences were
neglected, and reading and writing were
forgotten. People were concerned not with
learning and culture but with remaining alive.
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THE DECLINE OF CIVILIZATION 3

• Decline of Strong Central Government. Government
  was now in the hands of weak Germanic kingdoms
  the Visigoths in Spain, the Ostrogoths in Italy,
  the Angles and Saxons in England, and the Franks
  in Gaul (France). Their rulers generally failed
  to provide protection, insure justice, and
  maintain order. Such weaknesses existed because
  the Germanic kingdoms
• Lacked power to control their large territories
  and populations. Only a few hundred thousand
  Germans governed millions of other peoples.
• Lacked large armies to subdue ambitious nobles.
  A noble sometimes commanded military forces
  stronger than those of a monarch.
• Lacked roads and bridges to transport armies to
  trouble spots. Because the Germans knew little
  about engineering, they could not maintain the
  Roman transportation facilities.
• Lacked rules of succession to the throne to
  prevent civil war after a ruler's death.

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THE FRANKISH KINGDOM
Created by Clovis. Late in the 5th century,
invading Frankish warriors completed the defeat
of the Roman armies in Gaul. Leading one Frankish
group was a capable king, Clovis. Seeking to rule
all Gaul, Clovis (a) removed possible Frankish
rivals, (b) subdued other Germanic tribes in
Gaul, and (c) converted the Franks to Catholic
Christianity, thereby gaining support of the pope
and of Gaul's large Christian population. By
these measures Clovis created a powerful Frankish
kingdom. Ruled by "Do-Nothing" Kings. Clovis'
descendants, who nominally ruled for more than
two centuries, were incompetent and became known
as "do-nothing" kings. Their reign was marked by
recurrent outbreaks of civil war and by a sharp
increase in the power of the nobles at the
expense of the king. Control of the government
eventually passed into the hands of a powerful
noble, an official called the Mayor of the Palace.
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Battle of Tours
One of the greatest threats to Europeans in the
early Dark ages was the military invasion of the
Moslem Moors from Spain. In the early 8th
century, the Islamic Moors conquered Spain. They
decided to cross the Pyrenees mountains and
attack the rest of Europe. Charles Martel, as
Mayor of the Palace, led the Frankish army that
defeated the invading Moors (Arabs) at the Battle
of Tours (732). This battle ended the Moslem
thrust into Christian Europe and saved European
culture as we know it today.
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Donation of Pepin
In 751 the Lombards had conquered the imperial
territory at Ravenna, the seat of Byzantine
government in Italy, and were demanding tribute
from the pope and threatening to take Rome. Pepin
in 741 became Mayor of the Palace upon the death
of his father, Charles Martel. In 751, with the
pope's approval, Pepin removed the last do
nothing" king and assumed the Frankish throne.
Following Pepin's coronation, the pope secured
his promise of armed intervention in Italy and
his pledge to give the papacy the territory of
Ravenna, once it was conquered. In 756 a Frankish
army forced the Lombard king to surrender his
conquests, and Pepin officially conferred the
Ravenna territory upon the pope. Known as the
"Donation of Pepin," the gift made the pope a
temporal ruler over the Papal States, a strip of
territory that extended diagonally across Italy
from coast to coast.
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Age of Charlemagne
Charlemagne (English Charles the Great, German
Karl der Grosse, Latin Carolus Magnus) was born
on April 2, 742 in Northern Europe. Charles was
the eldest son of Pepen III It is said, "By the
sword and the cross," Charlemagne became master
of Western Europe.In 768, when Charlemagne was
26, he and his younger brother inherited the
kingdom of the Franks. In 771 His older brother
died, and Charlemagne became sole ruler of the
kingdom. At that time the Franks were falling
back into barbarian ways, neglecting their
education and religion. The Saxons of northern
Europe were still pagans. In the south, the Roman
Catholic church was asserting its power to
recover land confiscated by the Lombard kingdom
of Italy. Europe was in turmoil.Charlemagne was
determined to strengthen his realm and to bring
order to Europe. In 772 he launched a 30-year
military campaign to accomplish this objective.
By 800 Charlemagne was the undisputed ruler of
Western Europe. His vast realm encompassed what
are now France, Switzerland, Belgium, and The
Netherlands. It included half of present-day
Italy and Germany, and parts of Austria and
Spain. By establishing a central government over
Western Europe, Charlemagne restored much of the
unity of the old Roman Empire and paved the way
for the development of modern Europe.
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Charlemagne
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Charlemagne 2

• On Christmas Day in 800, while Charlemagne knelt
  in prayer in Saint Peter's in Rome, Pope Leo III
  placed a golden crown on the bowed head of the
  king and gave the title Emperor of the Romans..
  Charlemagne is said to have been surprised by the
  coronation, declaring that he would not have come
  into the church had he known the pope's plan.
  However, some historians say the pope would not
  have dared to act without Charlemagne's
  knowledge.Charlemagne learned to read Latin and
  some Greek but apparently did not master writing.
  At meals, instead of having jesters perform, he
  listened to visiting scholars read from learned
  works. Charlemagne believed that government
  should be for the benefit of the governed. He was
  a reformer who tried to improve his subject's
  lives. He set up money standards to encourage
  commerce and urged better farming methods.
• As is often the case, people considered great by
  historians are great killers as well. Throughout
  his conquests, Charlemagne was responsible for
  the death of masses of people who refused to
  accept Christianity, or their new king. Choosing
  to keep faith with their old gods and leaders,
  many thousands were slaughtered.

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Fall of Charlemagnes Empire
Charlemagne's death (814) was followed by years
of incompetent rule and civil war. Charlemagne's
successors lacked his ability and were unable to
keep the empire intact. By the Treaty of Verdun
(843), his three grandsons agreed to divide the
territory as follows Louis received the eastern
part, the basis of modern Germany Charles
received the western part, the basis of modern
France and Lothar received the central part,
which included the basis of modern
Italy. Charlemagne's successors proved unable to
control the nobles, prevent local warfare, and
suppress piracy and highway robbery. Most
important, they were unable to repel new
invasions of western Europe.
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New Invasions
The Norse (people of the north), also known as
Vikings, were Germanic barbarians from the north
European region of Scandinavia (Norway, Sweden,
Denmark). Poor soil and a coastline with many
natural harbors encouraged them to become
sailors. Attracted chiefly by Western Europe's
wealth, the Norse at first plundered coastal and
river cities. Later, faced with overpopulation at
home, they settled in England, Ireland, France,
Italy, and Sicily. They also settled in Russia
and Iceland. From Iceland Leif Ericson sailed
west and, long before Columbus, reached the New
World.
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New Invasions 2

• The Magyars, a people from central Asia, settled
  in Hungary. From this base, they attacked France,
  southern Germany, and northern Italy.
• The Arabs, or Moors, although stopped in 732 at
  the Battle of Tours, retained control of Spain
  and North Africa. From these bases they continued
  to raid southern France and Italy.
• Since the governments of Western Europe failed to
  withstand these various invaders, the people were
  inadequately protected. Their effort to safeguard
  their lives and property hastened the development
  of new relationships among peoplethe system of
  feudalism

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Feudalism
Feudalism maybe considered (1) a social system
of rigid class distinctions and a static, or
unchanging, way of life, (2) a political system
of local government and military defense, (3) an
economic system of self-sufficient agricultural
manors. Feudalism varied in detail according to
regional conditions.
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Feudal Society
Rigid Class Distinctions. Feudal society was
sharply divided into (a) land-holding noblesthe
privileged aristocracy, or upper classand (b)
the great mass of peasants, or serfsthe
unprivileged lower class. Position in feudal
society was determined by birth. Regardless of
ability or hard work, the serf could not advance
to higher social status. The Feudal Social
Pyramid The king, at the apex of feudal society,
nominally owned all the land in the kingdom.
Actually the king controlled only his own
estates, the royal domain. The powerful lords,
few in number, stood immediately below the king
as his subordinate vassals. These lords received
grants of land called fiefs from the king and in
return pledged him allegiance and military
service. The king (or lord) who granted the land
was called the suzerain. The vassal pledged to
fulfill his obligations in a ceremony called
homage. He was granted his fief in a ceremony
called investiture.
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Feudal Society

• The lesser lords, a more numerous group, were
  vassals of the powerful lords and received fiefs
  in exchange for pledges of allegiance and
  military service. The lesser lords could in turn
  grant fiefs to other nobles. This process, which
  could be repeated several times, is called
  subinfeudation.
• The knights, the lowest and most numerous group
  of nobles, constituted the bulk of the feudal
  armies. (Only men could be knights.)
• The serfs, far outnumbering the entire nobility,
  constituted the broad base of the feudal pyramid.

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Feudal Social Structure

• Powerful Lords and Clergy
• Lesser Lords and Clergy
• Knights
• Serfs

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Complicated VassalLord Relationships.

• Feudal relationships of the nobility were quite
  complicated.
• When lesser lords and knights received fiefs from
  different suzerains, they were vassals to several
  lords.
• The question of the vassal's primary allegiance
  led to many bitter disputes.

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Feudal Hereditary Relationships

• (a) The mutual obligations between lord and
  vassal or between noble and serf were usually
  hereditarybinding upon the heirs of both
  parties.
• (b) A noble's title and property could be
  inherited only by his first-born son.
• This restriction, awarding to the first-born son
  a status superior to his younger brothers, is
  called primogeniture.

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FEUDAL GOVERNMENT

• Weak Central Government. Although the central
  government or king theoretically administered the
  entire kingdom, the king could not generally
  exercise authority beyond the royal domain.
  Supposedly the supreme ruler, he was in reality
  only one of several powerful lords.
• Vigorous Local Government. Because the king was
  weak, the local nobles completely controlled
  their own territories. The nobles made laws,
  levied taxes, dispensed justice, and waged war,
  thereby assuming the functions of government.
  Thus, feudal government was decentralized.

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The Self-sufficient Agricultural Manor

• . The manor, or lord's estate, consisted of
• (a) the farm and pasture lands,
• (b) the lord's castle or manor house, and
• (c) the village buildings church, blacksmith and
  carpenter shops, serfs' huts, and the lord's
  winepress, flour mill, and baking oven.
• The manor was largely self-sufficient
  economically.
• On the manor the lord directed the
  activitiesdetermining what was to be produced
  and how the serfs performed the physical labor.

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The Castle.

• Dominating the lord's estate, or manor, was a
  castle. A cold, dark, damp home, lacking comforts
  and simple conveniences, it nevertheless
  constituted an excellent fortress. It was
• (a) located on elevated ground,
• (b) constructed of heavy wood or (after the 11th
  century) thick stone, and
• (c) surrounded by a deep, wide, water-filled
  trench, called a moat. A drawbridge, lowered
  across the moat, provided access to the outside.
  During attacks the families of the lords,
  vassals, and serfs found protection in the castle.

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During Peacetime.

• When peace prevailed the lord (a) hunted wild
  animals, (b) held mock battles called jousts and
  tournaments, and(c) trained young nobles for
  knighthood.
• The young noble received extended military
  schooling at horsemanship, in wearing armor, and
  in using the sword, lance, and battle-ax. At age
  21 he became a warrior on horseback, or knight.
• The knight was expected to observe a code of
  honorable conduct called chivalry. This code
  stressed
• (a) loyalty to God and to the knight's lord,
• (b) protection of the oppressed and helpless,
• (c) support of justice,
• (d) defense of Christianity, and
• (e) courage, courtesy, gallantry, and generosity.
  
• Unfortunately these chivalrous ideals were
  frequently violated.

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The Serfs

• Neither Slaves nor Free People. The serfs were
  not slaves since they could not be sold apart
  from the land and could claim the lord's
  protection. Nonetheless, the serfs were not free
  since they were "bound to the soil" and could not
  leave without the lord's permission.
• Obligations of the Serfs. In return for
  protection and the right to earn a living on the
  manor, serfs owed the lord (1) servicesseveral
  days of labor each week on the lord's farmlands,
  and
• (2) payment in kinda portion of the grain and
  other crops raised on the serfs' land. The serfs
  also had to give the lord a share of the goods
  they prepared in the lord's winepress, flour
  mill, and baking oven.
• An Impoverished Life. After meeting their
  obligations to the lord, the serfs had little
  left for themselves. They lived a hard, tedious
  life and had little opportunity for recreation
  and education. Many historians believe that the
  serfs paid a heavy price for the security they
  received.

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FACTORS LEADING TO THE DECLINE OF FEUDALISM

• The Crusades. During a 200-year period
  (1095-1291), western Europe undertook many
  Crusades, religious wars intended to recover the
  Holy Land from the Moslems. The Crusades weakened
  the economic basis of feudalism by awakening
  European demand for Eastern goods. Trade revived,
  towns grew, the merchant class prospered, serfs
  fled to the towns, and the self-sufficiency of
  the manor ended.
• The Rise of National States and Absolute
  Monarchy. From the 14th to the 17th centuries,
  the rise of national states weakened political
  and military feudalism. As the Crusades and
  feudal wars decimated the nobility, the monarch
  or central government gradually regained absolute
  power.
• Long after the feudal period ended, the French
  Revolution (1789) helped destroy the remaining
  traces of feudalism in western Europe. Even
  today, however, parts of Asia, Africa, and Latin
  America retain certain feudal aspects rigid
  class distinctions, landless peasants, and
  landowning by the wealthy few.