Dr. S. Nishan Silva

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Research Methodology

• Dr. S. Nishan Silva
• (MBBS)

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Stages in the Research Process
Define Problem
Planning a Research Design
Conclusions and Report
Planning a Sample
Processing and Analysing the Data
Gathering the Data
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Research Process Research Process Research Process
Phase I Preparation Phase Phase II Implementation phase Phase III Outcome Phase
1. Select a problem for research 7. Collect the data 9. Interpret research findings.
2. Literature review 8. Analyse data 10. Report the study
3. Formulate research question
4. Select research approach and design
5. Select data collection method.
6. Specify a population
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Research Methods - Timeframe

• Research Project
• Develop Research Proposal
• and obtain approval
• Develop and test questions
• Develop and test tool
• Obtain participants
• Administer instrument(s)
• Ongoing data collection and analysis
• Final collection of data
• Research Report

Day 344
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1. Problem Identification and statement of
research problems

• Sources to identify problems
• Nursing experience
• Personal, of collegues
• Of hospital records
• Nursing Literature
• Nursing journals, books
• Theory
• Text books

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2. Process of Selecting a Research Problem

• The topic is RESEARCHABLE
• The question is THEORY BASED
• The research is a feasible project
• The researcher has the ability to carry out the
  study

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3. Writing a problem statement

• Convert the topic in to a STATEMENT
• Question, statement or hypothesis
• A hypothesis is a statement of predicted
  relationship or difference between two or more
  variables

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A good research statement should have,

• Area of focus
• Population
• Research design
• Setting of the study

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Different levels of research problems

• Level 1
• One variable
• One Population
• Level 2
• Two variables
• Relationship between them
• Level 3
• Experimental type designs, finding causes
• Manipulation of one variable to find its effect
  on the other

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4. Define Variables

• What is a variable?
• A characteristic, property or attribute of the
  person or thing under investigation.

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Types of variables

• Dependant Variable
• It is the researched, observed variable
• It changes according to the manipulating variable
• Independent Variable
• The variable that is manipulated
• Extraneous variable
• Other variable (outside the research) that can
  interrupt
• May be controlled increase accuracy
• Discrete variable
• A variable that it finite a whole number ex-
  days, patients
• Continuous variable
• That is infinite
• Spans a range

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Defining variables

• Conceptual definition
• Defining as it is understood
• Ex- Social class
• Operational definition
• Working definition
• Definition to be used in the research
• Ex Fathers usual occupation as stated by the
  Mother

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5. Literature review

• Definition
• It is a critical summery of available theoretical
  and research literature on the selected research
  topic.

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Finding Literature

• Library catalogues manual and electronic
• Indexes and abstracts
• Ex MEDLINE, CINAHL, PubMED
• e-Medicine

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• Guidelines in doing the Review
• Search for existing literature in the library and
  on the web

• 2. Prepare a working bibliography. Record all
  vital details concerning the books or research
  you are including in your bibliography
• Write in index cards group together references
  from a. booksb. journals and periodicalsc.
  unpublished material
• 3. Examine each material, then decide which ones
  will actually be included in your review

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6. Population and sample

• Population define as much as possible
• Time bound?
• Geographically bound?
• Process of selecting a sample sampling
• Bias?
• Therefore
• Probability sampling
• Non probability sampling

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Developing a Sampling Plan

1. Define the Population of Interest
2. Identify a Sampling Frame (if possible)
3. Select a Sampling Method
4. Determine Sample Size
5. Execute the Sampling Plan

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Defining Population of Interest

• Population of interest is entirely dependent on
  Management Problem, Research Problems, and
  Research Design.
• Some Bases for Defining Population
• Geographic Area
• Demographics
• Usage/Lifestyle
• Awareness

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Probability Sampling

• Simple Random Sampling
• Everyone has a chance of getting included
• Random numbers table
• Stratified Random Sampling
• Population divided in to strata segments
• Then do simple random sampling for each strata
• Systematic Sampling
• Using every -----th person.

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Random numbers table
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Non-probability Sampling

• Convenience sampling
• Also called accidental. As you meet them.
• Purposive sampling
• Judgemental sampling
• Selects groups according to criteria
• Quota sampling
• Quotas from pre-decided characteristic groups
• Convenience sampling within a group
• Cluster sampling
• Multistage sampling
• Larger clusters and smaller clusters within

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Multistage Sampling

• Stage 1
• randomly sample clusters (schools)
• Stage 2
• randomly sample individuals from the schools
  selected

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Determining Sample Size

• How many completed questionnaires do we need to
  have a representative sample?
• Generally the larger the better, but that takes
  more time and money.
• Answer depends on
• How different or dispersed the population is.
• Desired level of confidence.
• Desired degree of accuracy.

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Other factors

• Inclusion criteria?
• Who gets in?
• How to filter?
• Exclusion criteria?
• Who stays out?
• How to determine?

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7. Research Design

• Quantitative Research
• Experimental Designs
• Non-experimental Designs
• Descriptive Design
• Exploratory Design
• Co-relational Design
• Retrospective Design
• Quasi-experimental Designs
• Qualitative Research

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Experimental Designs

• Researcher manipulates variable/s
• The design uses control groups
• The selection of sample is based on random
  sampling

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Non-Experimental Designs

• Descriptive Design
• Description of a data collection on several
  variables
• Exploratory Designs
• To find out relationship between dependant
  variable and independent variable without any
  manipulations . (Observe as it is)
• Co-Relational research Design
• Relationship between two variables in the same
  sample
• Retrospective Design
• Collect data on variables after they have
  happened (looking back at the past).

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Cross-Sectional Versus Longitudinal Studies

• Cross-Sectional Studies
• A study can be done in which data are gathered
  just once, perhaps over a period of days or weeks
  or months, in order to answer a research
  question.
• Longitudinal Studies
• Studying people or phenomena at more than one
  point in time in order to answer the research
  question.
• Because data are gathered at two different
  points in time, the study is not cross-sectional
  kind, but is carried longitudinally across a
  period of time.

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Quasi-Experimental Research

• Researcher does manipulate the independent
  variable
• But unable to randomly allocate
• Uses a convenient sampling method to form the
  sample.

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Qualitative Research

• What? Why? How?
• Data words / pictures etc
• The unfolding process determines the next step
• Researcher is the key instrument of data
  collection
• Open ended questionaires / Interviews / Video
  recordings / Observations

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Qualitative - Definition

• qualitative researchers study things in their
  natural settings, attempting to make sense of or
  interpret phenomenon in terms of the meanings
  people bring to them. (Denzin Lincoln, 2000,
  p.3).

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Qualitative Research Designs

• Descriptive / Exploratory Design
• Interpretative Design
• Ethnography
• Anthropological
• Methods Interviews/ Observations / Records /
  Life history facts / news reports / Diaries
• Phenomenology
• What it is like to have a certain experience?
• Ask peoples real life experiences / use novels/
  films
• Ground Theory
• Researcher formulates tentative theories using
  inductive reasoning
• Follows up those ideas with further enquiry
  deductive reasoning

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Data Collection methods

• Types of data to be collected
• Quantitative Data
• Data that is collected as numbers
• Qualitative data
• As words, pictures, documents, Photos

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Data Collection Methods and Instruments

• Bio-Physical measurements
• Observations
• Questionnaires
• Advantages?
• Disadvantages?
• Interviews
• Unstructured Open ended questions
• Structured Close ended questions
• Interview schedules and interview guides
• Advantages ? Disadvantages?

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Issues in research instrument

• Suitable for use
• Language / Culture
• Based on theory frame of the study
• Should test the theory / not too much of other
  info.
• Collect adequate info
• Valid / Reliable / Un-biased
• Accurate
• Protocol
• Simple directions for users
• Uncomplicated
• Easy to administer
• Not taking too much time / effort

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Pilot Project

• Smaller version
• Test the instrument (questionnaire)
• Small sample from the same or similar population
• Sort out problems
• Understandability
• Validity
• Accuracy

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Reliability and Validity

• Reliability
• Basic sources of inaccuracy
• Deficiency (error)
• Inconsistency between readings
• Methods to test reliability
• Test-retest method
• Same test twice with a rest in between
• Equivalent Test
• Two tests given to two samples with different
  behaviors
• Split half method
• Separate scores for even numbered and odd
  numbered items analyzed.

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Reliability and Validity

• Validity
• Types of Validity
• Predictive validity
• Ability of the instrument to predict future
  behavior
• Content validity
• Adequacy of coverage
• Concurrent validity
• Ability to differentiate people based on a
  criterian
• Construct validity
• Whether the theory is measured or something else
  is?
• Face validity
• Whether it appears to be valid

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Data Analysis

• How to process the collection (?papers)
• Master data sheets
• Coding
• Master tables
• Statistics

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Flowcharting the Research Process (2)
Survey (Interview, Questionnaire) Experiment
(Laboratory, Field) Secondary Data
Study Observation
Collection of Data (Fieldwork)
Editing and Coding Data
Sample Design
Data Processing and Analysis
Interpretation of Findings
Probability Sampling
Non-Probability Sampling
Report
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Read Research Statistics Chapter

• Homework

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The MOST IMPORTANT TIME for the statistics to be
involved with a research study is in the very
BEGINNING
STATISTICS CAN HELP OBTAIN THE MAXIMUM AMOUNT
INFORMATON FROM AVAILABLE RESOURCES
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HOW??? HELP WITH THE DESIGN OF THE
EXPERIMENT DETERMINE SAMPLE SIZE NEEDED DEVELOP
PROCESS OF COLLECTING DATA DISCUSS VARIABLES TO
BE MEASURED AND HOW THEY RELATE TO THE OBJECTIVES
OF THE STUDY PROVIDE METHODS OF ANALYZING THE
DATA HELP TRANSLATE STATISTICAL CONCLUSIONS INTO
SUBJECT MATTER CONCLUSIONS
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Why Use Statistics?

• Descriptive Statistics
• identify patterns
• leads to hypothesis generating
• Inferential Statistics
• distinguish true differences from
• random variation
• allows hypothesis testing

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Describing the Data with Numbers

• Measures of Central Tendency
• MEAN -- average
• MEDIAN -- middle value
• MODE -- most frequently observed value(s)

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Describing the Data with Numbers

• Measures of Central Tendency
• MEAN -- average
• MEDIAN -- middle value
• MODE -- most frequently observed value(s)

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Histogram-Frequency Distribution Charts
This is called a normal curve or a bell
curve This is an idealized curve and is
theoretical based on an infinite number derived
from a sample
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The Normal Curve and Standard Deviation
A normal curve Each vertical line is a unit of
standard deviation 68 of values fall within 1
or -1 of the mean 95 of values fall within 2
-2 units Nearly all members (gt99) fall within 3
std dev units
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Terms

• confidence interval
• The range of values we can be reasonably certain
  includes the true value.

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95 Confidence Intervals
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