Chemistry of Life

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Chemistry of Life
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Levels of Chemical Organization

• Atoms
• Nucleus- central core of atom
• Proton- charged particle in nucleus
• Neutron- non-charged particle in nucleus
• Atomic number- number of protons in the nucleus
  determines the type of atom
• Atomic mass- number of protons and neutrons
  combined

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Levels of Chemical Organization

• Atoms
• Energy levels- regions surrounding atomic nucleus
  that contain electrons
• Electron- negatively charged particle
• May contain up to eight electrons per level
• Energy increases with distance from nucleus

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• An ELECTRONS ENERGY LEVEL is the amount of
  energy required by an electron to stay in orbit.
  Just by the electrons motion alone, it has
  kinetic energy. The electrons position in
  reference to the nucleus gives it potential
  energy.

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• An energy balance keeps the electron in orbit and
  as it gains or loses energy, it assumes an orbit
  further from or closer to the center of the atom.
  SHELLS and SUBSHELLS are the orbits of the
  electrons in an atom.

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• Shells are lettered K through Q, starting with K,
  which is the closest to the nucleus. The shell
  can also be split into four subshells labeled s,
  p, d, and f, which can contain 2, 6, 10, and 14
  electrons, respectively.

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Elements, molecules, and compounds

• Element- a pure substance, made up of only one
  kind of atom
• Molecule- a group of atoms bound together in a
  group
• Compound- substances whose molecules have more
  than one kind of atom

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Elements

• Co Cobalt
• Cn Copernicium
• Cr Chromium
• Cs Cesium
• Cu Copper
• Db Dubnium
• Ds Darmstadtium
• Dy Dysprosium
• Er Erbium
• Es Einsteinium
• Eu Europium

• F Fluorine
• Fe Iron
• Fm Fermium
• Fr Francium
• Ga Gallium
• Gd Gadolinium
• Ge Germanium
• H Hydrogen
• He Helium
• Hf Hafnium
• Hg Mercury

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Elements

• Ac Actinium
• Ag Silver
• Al Aluminum
• Am Americium
• Ar Argon
• As Arsenic
• At Astatine
• Au Gold
• B Boron
• Ba Barium
• Be Beryllium

• Bh Bohrium
• Bi Bismuth
• Bk Berkelium
• Br Bromine
• C Carbon
• Ca Calcium
• Cd Cadmium
• Ce Cerium
• Cf Californium
• Cl Chlorine
• Cm Curium

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Elements

• Ho Holmium
• Hs Hassium
• I Iodine
• In Indium
• Ir Iridium
• K Potassium
• Kr Krypton
• La Lanthanum
• Li Lithium
• Lr Lawrencium
• Lu Lutetium

• Md Mendelevium
• Mg Magnesium
• Mn Manganese
• Mo Molybdenum
• Mt Meitnerium
• N Nitrogen
• Na Sodium
• Nb Niobium
• Nd Neodymium
• Ne Neon
• Ni Nickel

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Elements

• No Nobelium
• Np Neptunium
• O Oxygen
• Os Osmium
• P Phosphorus
• Pa Protactinium
• Pb Lead
• Pd Palladium
• Pm Promethium
• Po Polonium
• Pr Praseodymium

• Pt Platinum
• Pu Plutonium
• Ra Radium
• Rb Rubidium
• Re Rhenium
• Rf Rutherfordium
• Rg Roentgenium
• Rh Rhodium
• Rn Radon
• Ru Ruthenium
• S Sulfur

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Elements

• Sb Antimony
• Sc Scandium
• Se Selenium
• Sg Seaborgium
• Si Silicon
• Sm Samarium
• Sn Tin
• Sr Strontium
• Ta Tantalum
• Tb Terbium
• Tc Technetium

• Te Tellurium
• Th Thorium
• Ti Titanium
• Tl Thallium
• Tm Thulium
• U Uranium
• Uuh Ununhexium
• Uun Ununnilium
• Uuo Ununoctium
• Uup Ununpentium
• Uuq Ununquadium

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Elements

• Uus Ununseptium
• Uut Ununtrium
• Uuu Ununumium
• V Vanadium
• W Tungsten
• Xe Xenon
• Y Yttrium
• Yb Ytterbium
• Zn Zinc
• Zr Zirconium

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Chemical Elements of the Human Body

• Oxygen
• Carbon
• Hydrogen
• Nitrogen
• Calcium
• Phosphorus

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Elements Crucial to Human Health

• Chemical elements are crucial to our health.
  Although there are more in the body, these are
  the elements that we can most quickly impact in a
  positive way.

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The Elements (based on an average 160-pound
man)

• Element Weight
• Oxygen 90 pounds
• Carbon 36 pounds
• Hydrogen 14 pounds
• Calcium 3 pounds 12 ounces
• Nitrogen 3 pounds 8 ounces
• Phosphorus 1 pound 4 ounces
• Chlorine 4 ounces
• Sulphur 3 ½ ounces
• Potassium 3 ounces
• Sodium 2 ½ ounces
• Fluorine 2 ounces
• Magnesium 1 ½ ounces
• Silicon ¼ ounce
• Iron 1/6 ounce
• Iodine Trace
• Manganese Trace

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Calcium- The Knitter

• Calcium Ca(1.5) is the most common mineral in
  the human body nearly all of it found in bones
  and teeth. Ironically, calcium's most important
  role is in bodily functions, such as muscle
  contraction and protein regulation. In fact, the
  body will actually pull calcium from bones
  (causing problems like osteoporosis) if there's
  not enough of the element in a person's diet.
• Calcium is an alkaline, positive mineral that
  attracts oxygen. It must undergo an evolution to
  travel from rock form to a form that can be
  assimilated by the human body. It is through
  vegetable and animal form and their mineral
  content that calcium is converted to blood and
  bone.
• In the body, it aids digestion, nutrition and
  neutralization. Calcium promotes good growth,
  vitality and vigor by helping to regulate
  metabolism. It also causes coagulation of the
  blood and thus aids in clotting for healthy
  healing

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Calcium- The Knitter

• Symptoms on the skin of calcium deficiency are
  itchy skin, wrinkles and burns that heal poorly
  or slowly. Calcium can aid in conditions of
  rosacea, acne, psoriasis, impetigo (a very
  contagious infection of the skin common in
  children localized redness develops into small
  blisters that gradually crust and erode), prurigo
  (eruption of pale, dome-shaped papules that itch
  severely) and ichthyosis (A congenital, often
  hereditary skin disease characterized by dry,
  thickened, scaly skin. Also called alligator
  skin, fish skin, fishskin disease, ichthyosis
  sauroderma).
• Foods rich in calcium are almonds, agar,
  avocados, barley, brazil nuts, blackstrap
  molasses, carrots, buckwheat, cauliflower, figs,
  egg yolk, Irish moss, kelp, lentils, goat milk,
  parsnips, rice polishing, veal joint broth/jelly.

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Other important and interesting calcium facts

• .
• Most abundant element found in water, ash of
  plants and all soils.
• One of the most important biochemical elements
  needed in human nutrition.
• Must undergo evolution from rock form to
  plant/animal form to be assimilated.
• Contained in hard tissues of the body.
• Lends strength to arteries and veins all
  muscles.

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Other important and interesting calcium facts

• Aids digestion, nutrition, neutralization.
• Regulates metabolism.
• Calcium imbalance is the beginning of chronic
  disease.
• Menstrual disorders increased calcium to
  overcome excessive flow menstrual blood
  contains 40X the calcium of regular blood.
• Sugar intake depletes supply.
• Pellagra calcium deficiency.

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Other important and interesting calcium facts

• Milk deficiency in mothers turnip greens, green
  kale for calcium.
• Proven to make eggshells harder.
• Excess calcium hardening, bony growths,
  rheumatoid arthritis, joint stiffness (to combat
  excess wild strawberries, goat milk, raw egg
  yolk tonics, okra, celery).
• Deficient calcium lungs affected, growths,
  tumors, sores, abscesses, fevers, inflammations,
  deformities.

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Carbon- The Builder

• Carbon C (18) is synonymous with life. Its
  central role is due to the fact that it has four
  bonding sites that allow for the building of
  long, complex chains of molecules. Moreover,
  carbon bonds can be formed and broken with a
  modest amount of energy, allowing for the dynamic
  organic chemistry that goes on in our cells.
• Carbon is the basic factor of cell birth and cell
  life, the cradle of creation and principal
  element in growth. Carbon supports our vital
  systems. Carbon is found in all carbohydrates.
• Excess carbon in the body can manifest by anemia,
  obesity (adipose), diabetes, restlessness,
  laziness, boils, high blood pressure, low sex
  drive and acidity. Carbon deficiency may manifest
  as negativity, remoteness, and melancholy.
• Foods high in carbon sugars, most proteins,
  starches, grains/breads, fats, sweet fruits.

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Chlorine- The Laundryman

• Chlorine Cl (0.15) is usually found in the body
  as a negative ion, called chloride. This
  electrolyte is important for maintaining a normal
  balance of fluids.
• Chlorine is an organic salt that helps eliminate
  tissue congestion from the body, so new nutrients
  can be used to build and reinforce our systems.
  It is a germicide and, together with sodium,
  slows blood clotting and aids in keeping blood
  albumin, fibrin and casein, in solution. Our
  bones, nerves, sex glands, sweat glands and liver
  need chlorine, with a primary focus on building
  strong joints.
• Protein in the urine and insufficient oxygen
  intake due to malformed re corpuscles will be
  evident if chorine (sodium chloride) is lacking
  in your system.
• Foods that are high in chlorine are avocado,
  banana, bass, beef, beets, whole wheat bread,
  butter, buttermilk, casaba, celery, chicken,
  chicory, dry dates, egg yolk, lamb.

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Cobalt- The Proteinizer

• Cobalt (0.0000021) is contained in vitamin B12,
  which is important in protein formation and DNA
  regulation.

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Copper- The Giver

• Copper (0.0001) is important as an electron
  donor in various biological reactions. Without
  enough copper, iron won't work properly in the
  body.

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Flourine- The Resister

• Fluorine (0.0037) is found in teeth and bones.
  Fluorine reinforces calcium, preventing tooth
  decay. It keeps the sinus walls healthy and
  balances oxygen.
• In cases of fluorine depletion, the hair, corneal
  structures, nails, beard and skin are adversely
  affected. Indications may be sweaty, clammy feet,
  sticky eyelids, as well as numerous and painful
  boils and corns.
• Foods that are high in fluorine are black-eyed
  peas, goat buttermilk, goat butter, goat whey,
  spinach, tomatoes, cheese, cabbage, and parsley.

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Chromium- The Matchmaker

• Chromium (0.0000024) helps regulate sugar levels
  by interacting with insulin, but the exact
  mechanism is still not completely understood.

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Hydrogen- The Moisturizer

• Water is 11 hydrogen. The human body is 70
  water, the ocean that is human life. Hydrogen
  moisturizes tissue, transports nutrients,
  promotes elimination by irrigation of cells and
  organs, regulates temperature, prevents
  inflammation and soothes the nerves.
• With an excess of hydrogen, it would make sense
  that there would be an issue with edema or
  fluid-type body. Symptoms and/or attributes may
  include sluggishness, even temperament,
  compassion, weakness and exhaustion. Lack of
  hydrogen may create dehydration, appetite for
  salty foods, dry skin, excess body heat,
  arthritis, leanness and irritability.
• Foods high in hydrogen are fruit and vegetable
  juices, broths, kefir, water, citrus fruits,
  milk, whey, cherries, cabbage, carrots, celery,
  pineapple, watercress, watermelon.

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Iodine- The Metabolizer

• Iodine (0.000016) is required for making of
  thyroid hormones, which regulate metabolic rate
  and other cellular functions. Iodine deficiency,
  which can lead to goiter and brain damage, is an
  important health problem throughout much of the
  world.
• Iodine is vital in rebuilding new tissue in the
  body silicon and The thyroid, our emotion
  gland, as well as the liver, spleen, uterus,
  heart lining and lymphatic system are all greatly
  dependent on the intake of iodine. The metabolism
  of calcium, fluorine and many other elements are
  aided with iodine.
• Foods that are high in iodine are agar,
  artichokes, asparagus, beans, Brussels sprouts,
  cardamom, carrots, chives, coconut, eggplant,
  kale kelp, dulse leaf, lettuce, loganberries,
  mustard greens, oats, okra, onions, oysters,
  pike, tofu, spinach, squash, strawberries, tuna,
  turnip greens, watercress.

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Iron The Energizer

• Iron (0.006) Fe is a key element in the
  metabolism of almost all living organisms. It is
  also found in hemoglobin, which is the oxygen
  carrier in red blood cells. Half of women don't
  get enough iron in their diet.
• Iron works in conjunction with oxygen in the
  human body. It attracts oxygen, promoting
  vitality, tissue oxidation, circulatory
  stimulation, digestion, elimination and
  respiration.
• High iron content in the body may result in
  excess blood pressure, heaviness of the senses
  and lethargy. Iron deficiency is more common and
  manifest in anemia, poor respiration, low vital
  force, and low blood pressure.
• The highest iron foods are sea vegetation
  (dulse, kelp, Irish moss), unsulphured dried
  fruits, black cherries, greens and liquid
  chlorophyll.

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Magnesium The Relaxer

• Magnesium Mg (0.05) plays an important role in
  the structure of the skeleton and muscles. It
  also is necessary in more than 300 essential
  metabolic reactions.
• Magnesium works with calcium to calm nerves,
  promote sleep and is vital for teeth and bone
  strength, cell growth, tissue elasticity, and
  lowers fever.
• Excessive content of magnesium in the body can
  create numbness, apathy, sluggishness, slowed
  perception and poor memory. A low amount of
  magnesium may result in insomnia, headache, stiff
  muscles, hot temper, forgetfulness and mood
  shifts.
• Foods high in magnesium wheat germ, greens,
  yellow cornmeal, nuts and berries.

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Manganese

• Manganese (0.000017) is essential for certain
  enzymes, in particular those that protect
  mitochondria the place where usable energy is
  generated inside cells from dangerous oxidants.
  
• Manganese is strong, resilient and increases
  resistance. It assists in controlling nervous
  tension, enhances intellect and coordinates
  thought and action.
• Those who may have manganese excess will exhibit
  exaggerated emotion, although excess is very
  rare. Manganese deficiency may cause impatience,
  anxiety, nightmares, anger, depression, swollen
  glands, aversion to being touched, gout symptoms,
  cracking joints and reduced appetite.
• Foods high in manganese nuts and seeds

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Molybdenum- The Transformer

• Molybdenum (0.000013) is essential to virtually
  all life forms. In humans, it is important for
  transforming sulfur into a usable form. In
  nitrogen-fixing bacteria, it is important for
  transforming nitrogen into a usable form.

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Nitrogen The Restrainer

• Nitrogen (3) is found in many organic molecules,
  including the amino acids that make up proteins,
  and the nucleic acids that make up DNA.
• Nitrogen is found in elastic and connective
  tissue, hair, nails, skin and body fluids and is
  essential for metabolism. Bodies with high levels
  of nitrogen may be slow healing with lowered
  immune systems, suffer from drowsiness,
  forgetfulness and low heat generation.
• Deficiency in the nitrogen element may cause
  fatigue, muscular and tendon cramping and
  weakness, danger of blood clots, and volatility
  in personality.
• High protein foods are those that will assist the
  low nitrogen personality therefore, a decrease
  in high protein foods will assist a high nitrogen
  personality.
• Foods high in nitrogen are fish, spices, nuts,
  pasta, cheese, beans, poultry, lamb, lentils and
  spirulina.

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Oxygen The Giver Of Life

• Oxygen O (65) and hydrogen (10) are
  predominantly found in water, which makes up
  about 60 percent of the body by weight. It's
  practically impossible to imagine life without
  water.
• Heat production and physical and mental healthy
  are attributes of oxygen. Metabolism and
  regeneration are reinforced by an uptake of
  oxygen. Oxygen acts toward anabolism as well as
  catabolism. Think of recycling. All must return
  to nature, and disintegration is only complete
  with regeneration. The oxygen cycle has no
  beginning and no end.
• High oxygen types produce and excess of heat
  causing heat flushes, red face and neck toward
  evening, the lumbar region of the back my feel
  cool or numb, pain under the scapula,
  glucose-producing foods may cause colic and the
  skin may show symptoms of dermatitis. Salty foods
  and milk products are good for excessive oxygen
  types. Low oxygen types show symptoms of nervous
  irritability, energy decrease, poor digestion and
  the skin may flake and/or become scaly with blue
  undertones.
• The highest oxygen foods are beefs, blueberries,
  bone broth, fish, goat milk, nuts and seeds,
  onions, radishes, sea vegetation, spinach,
  tomatoes and turtle. As a general rule, foods
  that are high in iron are also high oxygen foods.

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Phosphorus The Light Bearer

• Phosphorus Ph (1) is found predominantly in bone
  but also in the molecule ATP, which provides
  energy in cells for driving chemical reactions.
• Phosphorus improves nerve nutrition, is an agent
  for growth, necessary for reproduction, present
  in white blood cells, and stimulates intellect.
  Phosphorus from vegetable sources affects the
  bones and phosphorus from animal sources affects
  the brain and nervous system.
• Phosphorus excess may cause volatile emotions,
  tissue degeneration, progressive emaciation, and
  exaggerated confidence. Those lacking in
  phosphorus will show signs of neuralgia, fear,
  lack of confidence, sensitivity to criticism and
  slow oxygen uptake.
• Foods high in phosphorus are for the nervous
  system/brain fish, meat, egg yolk, and dairy
  products for the bones lentils, soybeans,
  almonds, pumpkin seeds, and sunflower seeds.

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Potassium The Alkalizer

• Potassium K (0.25) is an important electrolyte
  (meaning it carries a charge in solution). It
  helps regulate the heartbeat and is vital for
  electrical signaling in nerves.
• Potassium assists in recuperative powers.
  Potassium and sodium work together in all cells
  of the body, including the nerve synapse, to
  maintain membrane potentials and to assist in
  metabolic processes. Potassium has a draining
  effect on the body to favor good kidney action.
  Potassium is analgesic and neutralizes acidity in
  all parts of the body therefore, lack of
  potassium will cause acidity and skin eruptions.
  Acidity will show physical evidence in the form
  of goose pimple-type skin on the upper arms and
  thighs.
• Potassium assists with ulcers, gangrene,
  cutaneous skin ailments, ingrown toenails, as
  well as improvement in the assimilation of
  albumin, casein and fibrin. When potassium and
  other alkaline salts are high in the blood,
  injuries heal quicker.
• Foods high in potassium apples, anise, apricots,
  bananas, black cherries, blueberries, Jerusalem
  artichokes, fish, kale, kelp, lentils, lima
  beans, wheat germ, and watercress.

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Selenium- The Catalyst

• Selenium (0.000019) is essential for certain
  enzymes, including several anti-oxidants. Unlike
  animals, plants do not appear to require selenium
  for survival, but they do absorb it, so there are
  several cases of selenium poisoning from eating
  plants grown in selenium-rich soils.

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Silicon The Magnetic Element

• Silicon provides elasticity, as well as helping
  the body become more alkaline. It has great
  effect on our membranous tissues and is
  beneficial for the nerves, the bowel walls, the
  alimentary tract and the lungs.
• Symptoms of silicon depletion can be a drying
  up of the skin, exc3ess mucous production
  literally avenues of elimination are closed.
• Foods rich in silicon are oats, barley, apples,
  bananas, beets, dates, kelp, brown rice and rice
  polishings.

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Other important and interesting silicon facts

• Magnetic comes from a city Magnesia in Thessaly.
  Magnet, magnesia, magnetism have the same root.
  Traced further back to magus, mach and the
  Sanskrit word mahaji meaning great, learned,
  wise. Others magi, magic, magician from this
  Sanskrit word. Ancient priests, magis (Greats)
  used magnesian stones in curing people.
• Silica affects the tissues, bones and nerves.
• Alkaline so the brain and nervous system are
  influenced making pulse more rhythmic.
• Antiseptic protection.

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Other important and interesting silicon facts

• Flesh is firmer.
• Hair becomes shiny and abundant.
• A person with good quantities of silicon is
  agile, lean, nimble, very active.
• (Lack of) abscesses, brooding and hopelessness,
  broods over ethics and principles which are
  trivial to others, becomes agitated,
  argumentative and ungratified, sense of
  perception is chaotic, feelings are
  hypersensitive, drowsy from riding in
  automobiles, buzzing in the ears, eyesight
  deteriorates.
• (Excess) inflexibility.

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Other important and interesting silicon facts

• Nations known for low cancer rates have a diet
  high in silicon and formic acid.
• Good for bruises, catarrh, tuberculosis and
  tumors.
• Autointoxication is prevented or reduced by
  silicon.
• Nicotine and drug habits are easier to overcome
  with silicon.
• Menstrual, ovarian and hysterical complications
  need silicon.
• Varicosities are reduced.

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Sodium The Youth Element

• Sodium Na (0.15) is another electrolyte that is
  vital for electrical signaling in nerves. It also
  regulates the amount of water in the body.
• Sodium is alkaline and is found in most waters
  and soils. Sodium acts on body fluids, organs,
  connective tissue, liver, pancreas and spleen.
  Provides alkalinity to the lymph and blood.
• Sodium excess types are always in a rush and have
  a tendency toward the extreme. Sodium deficiency
  types may have dry skin, flaccid muscles,
  offensive breath, cracking joints, difficulty
  digesting sweets, starches and fats, and bloating
  and fatigue.
• Foods high in sodium veal joint broth, goat
  milk, sea vegetation, black mission figs, dried
  apricots, celery, parsley and collard greens.

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Other important and interesting sodium facts

• One gallon of ocean water contains approximately
  4 oz. sea salt (rich in sodium).
• Humidity in air attracts sodium.
• Inorganic sodium (iodized salt) is not compatible
  with the body.
• The sun a sodium star as viewed by Bernard
  Jensen, ensures a high sodium content in mature
  fruit.
• Organic sodium keeps calcium in solution in the
  human body.
• Said to neutralize ulcers.

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Sulphur The Heater

• Sulfur (0.25) is found in two amino acids that
  are important for giving proteins their shape.
• Sulphur is the skins heating element and unites
  with all metals. Its primary function is building
  the skin, nail and hair. It also drives
  impurities to the surface, thus beautifying the
  complexion. Sulphur stimulates and regulates
  nerve activity, egg and sperm production,
  regulates brain heat and promotes flow of bile.
• Symptoms of Sulphur deficiency are acne,
  imbalance in sebum flow and weakened hair and
  nails.
• Foods rich in Sulphur are winter vegetables such
  as kale, cabbage, Brussels sprouts, cauliflower,
  horseradish, watercress, chervil and garlic.

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Zinc- The Protector

• Zinc (0.0032) is an essential trace element for
  all forms of life. Several proteins contain
  structures called "zinc fingers" help to regulate
  genes. Zinc deficiency has been known to lead to
  dwarfism in developing countries.

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Chemical Bonding

• Chemical bonds from to make atoms more stable
• Outermost energy level of each atom is full
• Atoms may share, or donate, or borrow them to
  become stable.

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IONIC BONDS

• Ions form when an atom gains or loses electrons
  in its outer energy level to become stable.
• Positive ion- has lost electrons indicated by
  superscript positive sign(s), as in Na, or Ca
• Negative ion- has gained electrons indicated by
  superscript negative sign(s), as in Cl-

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IONIC BONDS

• Ionic bonds form when positive and negative ions
  attract each other because of electrical
  attraction
• Electrolytes are molecules that dissociate (break
  apart) in water to form individual ions, also
  known as free ions

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COVALENT BONDS

• Covalent bonds form when atoms share their outer
  energy to fill up and thus become stable
• Covalent bonds do not ordinarily easily
  dissociate in water.

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FIVE MAJOR GROUPS OF COMPOUNDS

1. Carbohydrates- energy source, energy reserve, and
   structure
2. Lipids- fats- structure and energy source
3. Proteins- functional and structural
4. Nucleotides- structural genetic
5. Water- solvent, heat maintenance

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INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

• Inorganic molecules do not contain carbon-carbon
  covalent bonds or carbon-hydrogen covalent bonds.
• For example
• Water
• Some acids
• Some bases
• Some salts

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WATER CHEMICAL REACTIONS

• Dehydration synthesis- chemical reaction in which
  water is removed from small molecules so they can
  be strung together to form a larger molecule

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• Hydrolysis- chemical reaction in which water is
  added to the subunits of a large molecule to
  break it apart into smaller molecules

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• Chemical reactions always involve energy
  transfers, as when energy is used to built ATP
  molecules
• Chemical equations show how reactants interact to
  form products arrows separated the reactants
  from the products

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ACIDS, BASES, SALTS

• Water molecules dissociate to form equal amounts
  of H (hydrogen ion) and OH- (hydroxide ion)
• Acid- substance that shifts the H/OH- balance in
  favor of the H opposite of the base
• Base-substance that shifts the H/OH- balance
  against H, also known as an alkaline opposite
  of acid

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pH

• pH- mathematical expression of the relative H
  concentration in an aqueous solution

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• Neutralization occurs when acids and bases mix
  and form salts
• Buffers are chemical systems that absorb excess
  acids or bases and thus maintain a relatively
  stable pH

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Organic Chemistry

• Organic molecules contain carbon-carbon covalent
  bonds or carbon-hydrogen covalent bonds

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Carbohydrates

• Contain carbon(C), hydrogen(H), and oxygen(O).
• Made up of six-carbon subunits called
  monosaccharides or single sugars (such as
  glucose)
• Disaccharide- double sugar made of two
  monosaccharide units (sucrose, lactose)

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• Polysaccharide- complex charbohydrate made up of
  many monosaccharide units (glycogen)
• The function of carbohydrates is to store energy
  for later use

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Lipids

• Lipids are fats and oils
• Triglycerides
• Are made up of one glycerol unit and three fatty
  acids
• Store energy for later use

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• Phospholipids
• Are similar to triglyceride structure, expect
  with only two fatty acids, and with a
  phosphorus-containing group attached to glycerol
• The head attracts water and the double tail does
  not, forming a sable double layer in water.
• Form membranes of cells

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• Cholesterol
• Molecules have a steroid structure made up of
  multiple rings
• Cholesterol stabilizes the phospholipid tails in
  cellular membranes and is also converted into
  steroid hormones by the body

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Proteins

• Proteins are very large molecules made up of
  amino acids held together in long, folded chains
  by peptide bonds
• Structural proteins
• Form structures of the body
• Collagen in a fibrous protein that holds many
  tissues together
• Keratin forms touch, waterproof fibers in the
  outer layer of skin

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Proteins

• Functional proteins
• Participate in chemical processes (examples
  hormones, cell membrane channels, receptors, and
  enzymes)
• Enzymes are
• Catalyst which help chemical reactions occur
• Lock-and-key model-each enzyme fits a particular
  molecule that it acts on as a key fitting into a
  lock

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Proteins

• Proteins can combine with other organic molecules
  to form glycoprotein or lipoproteins

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Nucleic Acids

• Nucleic acids are made of nucleotide units
• Sugar (ribose or deoxyribose)
• Phosphate- nitrogen base (adenine, thymine, or
  uracil, guanine, cytosine)

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DNA

• Deoxyribonucleic acid is used as the cells
  master code for assembling proteins
• Uses deoxyribose as the sugar and A,T,(not U), C,
  and G as bases
• Forms a double helix

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RNA

• Ribonucleic acid is used as the temporary
  working copy of a gene
• Uses ribose as the sugar and A, U, (not T), C,
  and G as bases

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Nucleic Acids

• By directing the formation of structural and
  functional proteins, nucleic acids ultimately
  direct overall body structure and function