Dr. Hassan Arafat

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Energy and Environment
Introduction to Environmental consequences of
large scale energy generation Part II
Dr. Hassan Arafat Department of Chem.
Eng. An-Najah University
(these slides were adopted, with modification,
from Ms. Paulina Bohdanowicz , KTH Institute,
Sweden)
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Potential causes of concern associated with
fossil fuels

• Coal
• Global climate change, acid rain, environmental
  effects of open-cast mining, land subsidence due
  to deep mining, ground water pollution, mining
  accidents, health effects on miners
• Oil
• Global climate change, air pollution by vehicles,
  acid rain, oil spills, oil rig accidents
• Natural gas
• Global climate change, methane leakage from
  pipes, methane explosions, gas rig accidents

Source Boyle et al. 2003
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The recent decline and rise in China's reported
coal use has been attributed largely to
variations in data collection and not to severe
fluctuations in actual consumption.
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The recent decline and rise in China's reported
coal use has been attributed largely to
variations in data collection and not to severe
fluctuations in actual consumption.
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Oil global currency
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Includes crude oil, shale oil, oil sands, and
natural gas liquids (the liquid content of
natural gas where this is recovered
separately). Excludes liquid fuels from other
sources such as coal derivatives.
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Average personal oil consumption
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1992-2003 data exclude natural gas that was
flared or recycled.
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Coal

• the altered remains of prehistoric vegetation
  that originally accumulated as plant material in
  swamps and peat bogs
• 400 millions yrs ago (the Devonian period)
  start of the formation of large coal deposits
• 350-280 million years ago (the Carboniferous
  period) significant accumulations of coal in the
  Northern Hemisphere
• 350-225 million years ago (the Carboniferous/Permi
  an period) in the Southern Hemisphere
• approximately 100-15 million years ago(the late
  Cretaceous period to early Tertiary era) in the
  USA, South America, Indonesia and New Zealand
• and now we are releasing all the carbon stored
  and contained in it

Source World Coal Institute, Coal Power for
Progress, www.wci-coal.com, 2005
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Coal

• metamorphism or coalification undergone by a
  coal
• peat
• gt lignite
• gt sub-bituminous
• gt bituminous
• gt anthracite
• Influences its physical and chemical properties,
  and is referred to as the rank of the coal

Source WCI 2005
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Coal cycle

• Mining
• Transport
• Processing
• Combustion

Source WCI 2005
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Impact assessment of mines

• before a mine opens, exhaustive studies of the
  immediate environment are carried out to define
  the existing conditions and to identify
  sensitivities and potential problems
• the studies address the impact of mining on
  factors such as surface and ground water, soils,
  local land use, and native vegetation and
  wildlife populations
• the findings are reviewed as part of the process
  leading to the award of a mining permit by the
  relevant government authorities
• a detailed rehabilitation or reclamation plan is
  designed and approved for each mine, covering the
  period from the start of operations until well
  after mining has finished

Source WCI 2005
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Mining

• 1. Underground mining (50)
• Anthracite seams (less than 10 of world coal
  production)
• 65-75 of coal recovered

• 2. Surface mining (50)
• lignite seams (25) are most often surface-mined
• economic only when the coal seam is near the
  surface
• more coal recovered

Bituminous seams (approximately 65) are mined in
roughly equal proportions by both methods
Source WCI 2005
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Mining

• 1. Underground Mining
• Room-and-pillar Mining
• Long-wall Mining
• Short-wall Mining
• Thick-seam Mining

• 2. Surface Mining
• Contour Strip Mining
• Area Strip Mining
• Open-pit Mining
• Auger Mining

Source WCI 2005
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Strip mining and land recovery
Source WCI 2005
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Choice of mining method

• economic factors
• energy demand and its growth,
• the supply and cost of alternative sources of
  energy,
• coal quality and the cost of coal preparation,
• the selling price of coal,
• advancements in technology that affect costs of
  production,
• environmental legislation

• technological factors
• the number of seams,
• the thickness and steepness of each seam,
• the nature and thickness of the strata overlying
  the seams,
• the quality of the coal seams,
• the surface topography,
• the surface features,
• the transportation networks available

Source WCI 2005
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Choice of mining method

• social factors
• prior history of mining in the area,
• ownership patterns,
• availability of labour,
• local or regional government support

Source WCI 2005
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Extraction underground mining

• Land subsidence
• Underground mine fires
• Air pollution
• Fugitive emissions of particulate matter and gas
  (SO2, NOx, H2S, CH4)
• Particulates gt respiratory diseases chronic
  bronchitis, asthma
• Gaseous emissions gt global warming, health
  hazards to local population
• Methane emissions depend on the mining methods,
  depth of coal mining, coal quality and entrapped
  gas content in the coal seams

Source WCI 2005
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Extraction underground mining

• Water pollution
• the carry-over of the suspended solids in the
  drainage system of the mine stamp water and
  storm-water drains
• acidic water found in the underground aquifers
• waste-water from the coal preparation plant and
  mine water
• Discharge of effluents (alkaline compounds, acid
  drainage, salty waters, heavy metals)
• Waste materials (tailings)

Source WCI 2005
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Extraction surface mining

• Vegetation clearance gt erosion of soil
• Altering the drainage patterns
• Particulates
• Waste materials (tailings)

Source WCI 2005
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Oil

• oil deposits - located almost exclusively in
  sedimentary rock and often associated with
  certain geological structures
• oil - usually found trapped in a layer of porous
  sandstone, which lies just beneath a dome-shaped
  or folded layer of some non-porous rock such as
  limestone
• in other formations the oil is trapped at a
  fault, or break in the layers of the crust

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Oil locations - Alaska
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Petroleum Cycle
Combustion
Transport
Extraction
Refining
Derivatives
Pipelines
Tankers
Exploration
Processes 0,11
Onshore
Offshore
Well Development
Production
Drilling
Primary
Completion
Secondary
Tertiary
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Extraction oil drilling

• On-shore or off-shore
• Drilling procedures similar but rigs are
  different
• four main offshore rig types
• Submersibles are able to go down to 50m,
• Jack-Ups can go down to 110m,
• Semi-submersibles can go to 610m and
• Drillships up to 1680m

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Extraction oil drilling

• Exploration
• the search for rock formations associated with
  oil deposits, and requires geophysical
  prospecting and/or exploratory drilling
• seismic survey, geophysics and geology
• Well Development
• Drilling
• Well Completion

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Extraction oil drilling drilling fluid

• sent down the drill pipe to allow the drill to
  rotate
• essential for cooling of the drill bit and the
  rock, bringing loose chunks of rock up to the
  surface, prevention of cave ins and losses of mud
  into the formation being drilled
• properties required depend upon the drilling
  conditions
• a gas or foam,
• liquid-based fluids (drilling muds) - more
  extensively used
• usually contain bentonite clay (that increases
  the viscosity and alters the density of the
  fluid), additives
• 3 general categories of drilling muds
• water-based most frequently used,
• oil-based,
• synthetic-based.

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Extraction - drilling

• Production
• bringing the fluid to the surface, separating
  liquid and gas components and removing impurities
• Primary
• Secondary
• Tertiary
• Maintenance
• Well Abandonment

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Extraction - drilling

• Vegetation clearance (roads or drilling sites)
  Soil erosion
• Seismic waves
• Spills and blowouts
• Combustion gases
• Direct wastes
• Indirect wastes

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Extraction - drilling

• Direct Wastes
• drilling mud (high concentrations of Cd, As, Hg,
  HC)
• produced water from cooling (contaminated with
  Cl, Na, Ca, Mg, K, organic compounds, various
  metals, off shore drillings - high saline
  concentrations), high BOD
• sand (particulates, oil, wastes, metals)
• cleaning fluids for water (acids, Na, Ca, Cl and
  CO3)
• corrosion inhibitors, paint fumes and cleaning
  solvents
• gt acidification
• gt oxygen depletion

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Potential material outputs from the well
development process

• Air emissions
• Fugitive natural gas, other VOCs, PAHs, CO, CO2,
  H2S
• Waste water
• Drilling muds, organic acids, alkalis, diesel
  oil, crankcase oils, acidic stimulation fluids
  (HCl HF hydrofluoric acid)
• Residual waste
• Drill cuttings (some oil-coated), drilling mud
  solids, weighting agents, dispersants, corrosion
  inhibitors, surfactants, flocculating agents,
  concrete, casings, paraffins

Source Protecting Our Environment An
Environmental, Health and Safety Report from the
Oil and Natural Gas Industry, American Petroleum
Institute (API), Consumer Information, December
21 2000
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Potential material outputs from the production
process

• Air emissions
• Fugitive natural gas, other VOCs, PAHs, CO, CO2,
  H2S, fugitive BTEX (benzene, toluene,
  ethylbenzene, xylene) from natural gas
  conditioning
• Waste water
• Produced water heavy metals, radionuclides,
  dissolved solids, oxygen-demanding organic
  compoundsd, high level of salts
• May contain additives including biocides,
  lubricants, corrosion inhibitors
• Waste water glycol, amines, salts and untreated
  emulsions
• Residual waste
• Sand, elemental sulphur, spent catalysits,
  separator sludge, tank bottoms, used filters,
  sanitary wastes

Source API 2000
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Potential material outputs from the maintenance
process

• Air emissions
• Volatile cleaning agents, paints, other VOCs,
  hydrochloric acid gas
• Waste water
• Completion fluid
• Waste water well-cleaning solvents (detergents
  degreasers), paints, stimulation agents
• Residual waste
• Pipe scale, waste paints, paraffins, cement, sand

Source API 2000
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Potential material outputs from the abandoned
wells, spills blowouts

• Air emissions
• Fugitive natural gas, other VOCs, PAHs,
  particulate matter, sulphur compounds, CO, CO2
• Waste water
• Escaping oil and brine
• Residual waste
• Contaminated soils and sorbents
• risk of filtration and underground water
  contamination

Source API 2000
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Extraction - drilling

• Waste appr. 1000 tonnes per well - impact on
  ecosystems
• Offshore drilling
• suspended solids - a danger for bottom-dwelling
  and critical ocean-bottom habitats
• a wide range of health and reproductive problems
  for fish and other marine life
• the threat of oil spills that would devastate
  wildlife populations
• destruction of kelp beds, reefs and coastal
  wetlands

Source Committee Against Oil Exploration
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Extraction - drilling

• Over its lifetime, a single oil rig can
• Dump more than 90 000 metric tons of drilling
  fluid and metal cuttings into the ocean
• Drill between 50-100 wells, each dumping 11
  tonnes of toxic metals, such as lead, chromium
  and mercury, and potent carcinogens like toluene,
  benzene, and xylene into the ocean.
• pollute the air as much as 7000 cars driving 80
  km a day.

Source Committee Against Oil Exploration
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Extraction
European Environment Agency (EEA), Europes
environment the third assessment, Environmental
assessment report, no.10, European Community,
Copenhagen 2003
Source EEA 2003
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Processing - coal

• Run-of-mine coal contains a mixture of different
  size fractions, sometimes together with unwanted
  impurities such as rock and dirt
• Coal preparation/beneficiation processing of
  raw run-of-mine coal into a range of clean,
  graded and uniform coal products suitable for
  commercial market
• coal cleaning (crushing, separation of fractions,
  washing, milling and solvent refining)
• upgrading (decrease of moisture content),
• blending (mixing coals from different sources to
  achieve acceptable quality, at lower cost),
• bioprocesses (microbial desulphurisation)
• If coal of high quality only crushed screened

Source WCI 2005
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Processing - coal

• Effective preparation of coal prior to
  combustion
• improves the homogeneity of coal supplied,
• reduces transport costs,
• improves the utilisation efficiency,
• produces less ash for disposal at the power
  plant,
• and may reduce the emissions of oxides of
  sulphur.

Source WCI 2005
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Coal processing - impacts

• Coal
• Storage in stock piles
• Particulates emission
• Water used for preparation
• Effluents (water, chemicals particulates)
• Loss of coal to waste
• Disposal of waste

Source WCI 2005
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Chemical composition of crude oil

• Constituent Quantity
• Sulphur 2.44 by weight
• Nitrogen 0.14 by weight
• Nickel 7.7 ppm
• Vanadium 28 ppm
• Naphtha fraction 22.7 by weight
• (boiling pt.from 20 to 205 C)
• High boiling fraction 77.3 by weight
• (boiling pt. above 205 C)
• Aromatics 23.3 by weight
• Paraffin 20.9 by weight
• Insoluble 3.5 by weight

Source EPA 2001
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Oil processing - refining
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Derivatives from one barrel of crude oil

• Product Gallons per barrel
• Gasoline 19.5
• Distillate Fuel Oil 9.2
• Kerosene-type jet fuel 4.1
• Residual fuel oil 2.3
• Liquefied Refinery Gases 1.9
• Still Gas 1.9
• Coke 1.8
• Asphalt and Road Oil 1.3
• Petrochemical feed stocks 1.2
• Lubricants 0.5
• Kerosene 0.2
• Others 0.3

Note Figures are based on 1995 average yields
for U.S. refineries. One barrel contains 42
gallons of crude oil. The total volume of
products made is 2.2 gallons greater than the
original 42 gallons of crude oil. It represents
processing gain.
Source EPA 2001
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Oil processing - impacts

• Air (precursors of ozone destruction, acid rain
  and global warming)
• volatile hydrocarbons from crude oil
• SOx from crude oil and process heat
• NOx and particulates from process heat
• H2S from sulphur recovery operations
• Energy-intensive operation so all pollutants
  associated with energy transformation
• Water
• contamination of the process wastewater from
  desalting, distillation, cracking, and reforming
  operations
• needs treatment before disposal.
• large quantities of cooling water, which needs a
  treatment prior to disposal
• about 24 of total emissions are released to
  wastewater

Source American Petroleum Institute, Sixth
Annual Petroleum Industry Environmental
Performance Report, 1998
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Oil processing - impacts

• Associated waste
• ammonia, toluene, benzene, xylenes, propylene,
  methyl ethyl ketone (solvent), acids, caustic
  products, lead
• Hazardous solids
• desalter sludge
• spent catalysts
• other process sludge
• storage tank bottoms

Source API 1998
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Oil processing - impacts

• Water eutrophication (nitrogen)
• Toxicity for human and aquatic organisms
• Carcinogenic effects
• Affected plant growth
• In small amounts the compounds released could be
  biodegraded by microorganisms

Source API 1998
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Emissions from refineries, per tonne of crude
oil processed

• Particulate matter - approx. 0.8 kg.
• SOx - approx. 1.3 kg.
• NOx - approx. 0.3 kg

Source API 1998
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Coal transportation

• App. 14 of coal produced world-wide is traded
  internationally, although this figure is forecast
  to rise.
• 60 of coal used for power generation is used
  within 50 km of the mine.

Source WCI 2005
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Major trade routes for coal, 1998
Approximate million tonnes per annum
Source WCI 2005
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Transportation

• Short distances
• conveyors and trucks
• Long distances
• trains (6 locomotives and 148 wagons amounting to
  a length of more than 2 kilometers which can
  carry about 8500 tones of coal)
• barges
• ships
• Pipelines (for oil and gas)

Source WCI 2005
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Transportation

• Vehicles
• Fossil fuel combustion
• Emissions
• CO, CO2
• NOx
• SOx
• VOCs
• Particulate matter
• Respiratory diseases
• Toxicity
• Carcinogenic effects
• Greenhouse effect
• Acid rain
• Acidification

Source WCI 2005
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Transportation

• Vehicles
• Risk of oil spills (shore)
• Road accidents
• Water quality
• Aquatic fauna flora

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The worlds most catastrophic oil spills

• Exxon Valdez (Prince William Sound, Alaska 1989)
  
• Ashland Oil (Floreffe, Pennsylvania 1988)
• Colonial Pipeline (Fairfax County, Virginia
  1993)
• Tampa Bay Barge Collision (Tampa Bay, Florida
  1993)

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Transportation
Source EEA 2003
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Oil off-shore spills

• Impacts depend on
• Product
• Location
• Weather
• Flow dynamics
• Response measures taken

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Oil off-shore spills

• Harm to marine life
• by poisoning after ingestion
• by direct contact
• by destroying habitats
• by direct exposure to oil
• clogging feather gt impossible to fly and so
  heavy the birds sink
• eliminating the ability of feather and fur to
  keep warm - colder climates, many oiled animals
  die of hypothermia (drastically lowered body
  temperatures)
• The 'Torrey Canyon' oil spill (1967) 10 000
  bird corpses found on beaches in England, but
  estimations 90 of the birds killed - drown and
  sink to the bottom of the ocean before they can
  be washed up on a beach

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Transportation
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Transportation

• Pipelines

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Transportation

• Pipelines
• Leakage, spills, explosions
• Soil, water air pollution

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Oil on-shore spills

• hydrocarbons are deposited in soil, groundwater
  and around vegetation and wildlife
• long-term risks posed by polycyclic aromatic
  hydrocarbons (PAHs) - persistent oil residues
• some PAHs - carcinogenic and toxic properties
• transport of hydrocarbons by groundwater a
  potential threat to the nature and humans
• potential explosions and fires

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Storage

• Coal
• Spontaneous fires
• Particulates emissions
• Gas emissions
• Leaching

• Oil
• (20 of underground tanks are leaking)
• Vapourisation air pollution
• Leaking of tanks soil water contamination

Source WCI 2005
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Coal uses
Global hard coal consumption in 1997 3755Mt
Source WCI 2005