Emergence and Ideals of Nationalism and Liberalism

1
Emergence and Ideals of Nationalism and
Liberalism
2
Nationalism

• The idea of a nation consisting of people unified
  by common culture, language, and/or religion, who
  should all be ruled by one government
• Reaction against Cosmopolitanism
• Enlightenment ideal that all human beings belong
  to one family.
• Enlightenment culture had emphasized
• A common language
• The universality of Reason.
• Common intellectual world of the educated middle
  class and nobility.
• Opposition to the Congress of Vienna,
• Principle of states based on monarchies and
  dynasties,
• Disregarding the ethnic makeup of countries as a
  factor for boundaries

3
First phase (first half of the 1800s)

• Small nationalist groups
• Intellectuals (historians, professors, teachers,
  and other scholars)
• Imparted cultural history, bonds, and language on
  the people

4
Meanings of Nationhood

• Some nationalists
• Argued that uniting ethnicities into one group
  would help economic and administrative success
• Thought that nationhood was imposed by God, or
  compared nationhood to divinity
• Difficulties in classifying nations
• Which ethnic groups could be considered nations
  with legitimacy to claim political and
  territorial independence?
• Would nationhood only be classified on which
  groups managed to create a stable economy and
  culture?
• Would ethnic uprisings be viewed as legitimate
  grasps for independence?

5
The Impact of the French Revolution Liberty,
Equality and Fraternity

• French revolutionary ideas stressed the rights of
  the people. The people come to have their own
  significance as a unit.
• Reaction to French Revolution
• French spread their ideals all over Europe.
• dominated the other countries.
• Other countries took up the ideals of the French
  Rev. and applied them to their own situation,
  especially in Germany.
• Never been a united German state, but Germans saw
  what power a united France had achieved.

6
Centers of European Nationalism

• Ireland
• Ireland became directly governed by the British
  Crown after 1800,
• Irish people elected members to the Parliament
• Nationalists demanded either independence or
  autonomy
• Nationalism would persist in Ireland well into
  the 20th century

7
Polish Nationalism

• Since the loss of Polish independence in the
  Partitions, Polish nationalists,urged for armed
  struggle to regain independence from Austria,
  Prussia, and Russia
• Most disturbances in the Russian portion of
  Poland November Insurrection of 1830-1831
• January Insurrection of 1863-1864)
• Both doomed by bad military leadership or
  disunity
• Nationalist groups survived in Poland,
• After 1864, no uprisings occurred
• All social classes and sectors of Polish economy
  must be improved and equalized before independence

8
Liberalism

• Roots in Enlightenment, English liberties, and
  principles of the French Declaration of the
  Rights of Man and Citizen
• Establishment of legal equality, religious
  tolerance, and freedom of press
• Less autocratic government
• Government relied on the consent of the people
• Parliament would represent the people
• Ministers in government should be responsible to
  the legislature rather than the monarch
• Sought democracy limited to the property-owners
• Had contempt for the lower class
• Aristocratic liberty was thought by liberals to
  be a concept of privilege based on wealth and
  property rather than birth

9
Economic Goals

• Sought the removal of mercantilism and regulated
  economy
• Promoted capitalism
• Favored removal of international tariffs and
  internal trade barriers
• France and Great Britain flourished with liberal
  establishments
• Germany was full of anti-liberal nobility

10
Conservative Order in Europe

• Conservatism
• Pillars of Support
• Absolute Monarchies
• Landed Aristocracies
• Established Churches

11
Conservative Views

• Only aristocratic and/or upper-bourgeois
  governments could be trusted
• Aristocrats felt that their power was threatened
  by representative governments
• Conservatives would not agree to
  constitutionalism unless they created the
  documents
• Clerics only supported popular movements if they
  were based around the Church
• Clerics supported the status quo, and detested
  ideas of the Enlightenment
• Upper classes felt surrounded by enemies and gave
  up some former privileges
• Post-Vienna Europe confronted internal problems
  after external ones seemed to disappear

12
Hungarian Nationalism

• Since Maria Theresa granted concessions to the
  Magyar nobility of Hungary
• Nobility persisted in gaining and retaining
  privileges
• Hungary troubled the stability of the Habsburg
  Empire until its end in World War I
• Nationalists launched several uprisings, and
  participated in the "Spring of Nations" in the
  Revolutions of 1848
• Agitations led to the eventual Compromise of 1867
• Austria and Hungary became virtually separate
  nations in a personal union under the Habsburgs

13
Threat of Nationalism to the Establishment

• Nationalists, sought to redraw Europe along
  ethnic lines
• Would effectively dissolve the Ottoman, Austrian,
  and Russian empires
• Nationalism and liberalism sometimes worked
  together, adding to the concern of absolutists
  and ultraroyalists
• Nationalism eventually succeeded,
• United the German and Italian states into
  unified, strong countries, challenging French and
  Austrian ambitions

14
Reaction in Austria and Germany

• Austria
• Prince Klemens von Metternich
• Architect of the Congress of Vienna settlement,
• Symbol of conservative political reaction against
  nationalism and liberalism
• Austria was threatened as the most multi-ethnic
  country in Europe
• Recognition of aspirations of any ethnic groups
  Dissolution of the empire
• Representative government was feared - national
  groups could gain their ambitions legally through
  parliaments
• To prevent success of nationalism and liberalism
  even further, the Austrians wanted to dominate
  the states of the German Confederation,
• Replaced the HRE
• Loose organization of 39, nominally independent
  kingdoms and principalities
• Moves toward constitutional government in each of
  the states of the Confederation were opposed and
  blocked by Austria

15
Prussia

• King Frederick William III promised
  constitutional government in 1815, but went back
  on his word in 1817
• Council of State was formed, which was not
  constitutionally-based, but effective
• 1819-1823 - Further steps away from liberalism
  had been undertaken by the King,
• Establishment of eight Junker-dominated
  provincial estates (diets),
• Reaffirmed link between Prussian monarchy, army,
  and landholders

16
German Confederation

• Constitutional Governments established in three
  south German states of Baden, Bavaria, and
  Wurttemberg,
• Did not recognize popular sovereignty
• Confirmed powers of the monarchs
• Young Germans were loyal to the nationalism and
  liberalism that emerged from the Napoleonic
  occupation
• University students circulated nationalist
  writings and formed the Burschenschaften (student
  associations)
• Sought to sever old provincial loyalties and
  replace them with national loyalty to a greater
  German state

17
Student Uprisings

• 1817 Jena
• Bonfires and celebrations were organized for the
  anniversaries of the Battle of Leipzig and
  Luther's Ninety-five Theses
• Nationalist celebrations accentuated the rise of
  the movement throughout Germany
• March 1819
• Karl Sand,
• Member of one of the student clubs,
• Assassinated the conservative dramatist August
  von Kotzebue and was tried and executed
• Became a martyr for the young nationalists
• Metternich used the Sand incident to suppress the
  societies

18
July 1819the Carlsbad Decrees

• Metternich persuaded
• Dissolution of the Burschenschaften
• Press and university censorship
• Final Act limited the subjects discussed in the
  constitutional assemblies of Bavaria,
  Wurttemberg, and Baden
• Right of monarchs to resist constitutionalist
  demands
• Led to the constant harassment of potential
  dissidents by the German monarchs

19
Repression in Britain

• Prime Minister Lord Liverpool
• Unprepared for the emergence of the internal
  problems after the Napoleonic wars
• Tory ministry sought to placate and protect the
  interests of the landed and wealthy classes
• 1815 - Corn Law
• Maintain high prices for domestic grain through
  import duties on foreign grain
• 1816 - Parliament abolished the income tax for
  the wealthy,
• Replaced it with excise taxes on consumer goods
  paid by the wealthy and the poor

20
English Discontentment

• Lower classes began to doubt the wisdom of the
  rulers
• Calls for reform were intensified
• Radical newspapers formed
• Demanding change of the political system,
  including William Cobbett's Political Registrar
• Government
• Feared workers as possible repetitions of
  France's sans-culottes ready to murder the elites
  
• Regarded the radical leaders, including Cobbett,
  John Cartwright, and Henry Hunt as demagogues
  betraying national allegiances
• December 1816 - Discontent mass meeting occurred
  at Spa Fields
• Government reacted by passing the Coercion Act of
  March 1817,
• Suspended habeas corpus and extended laws against
  seditious gatherings

21
"Peterloo"

• After temporary stability, radical reformism grew
  again
• August 16, 1819 - Radicals met in Manchester at
  Saint Peter's Fields
• Royal troops were called to keep order
• Panic broke out, making the massacre famed as the
  "Peterloo Massacre"
• Liverpool supported the Manchester
  administration's decision
• Became determined to stop the radical movements
• Radical leaders were arrested

22
The Six Acts

• December 1819 - Six Acts passed
• Forbade large unauthorized public meetings
• Raised the fines for seditious libel
• Sped up the trials of political agitators
• Increased newspaper taxes
• Prohibited training of armed groups
• Allowed local officials to search homes in
  certain disturbed counties
• February 1820- the Cato Street Conspiracy was
  discovered
• Under the leadership of a man named Thistlewood,
  extreme radicals plotted to assassinate the
  entire British Cabinet
• Leaders were arrested and tried, four of them
  being executed
• Conspiracy served only to discredit the reform
  movement

23
Bourbon Restoration in France

• Louis XVIII returned to power
• Louis XVI's son, though he never formally ruled
  France, was regarded as Louis XVII
• Permitted a constitution, but it was largely his
  own creation - the Charter
• Hereditary Monarchy
• Bicameral legislature - royally-appointed upper
  house lower house (Chamber of Deputies) elected
  on a very narrow franchise with high property
  requirements
• Guaranteed the rights of the Declaration of the
  Rights of Man and Citizen
• Religious toleration, with Roman Catholicism as
  the official religion
• Property rights of current owners of land would
  not be challenged

24
Rise of Ultraroyalists

• Count of Artois (the Kings brother) led the
  extreme royalists in demanding revenge against
  former revolutionaries and Napoleonic supporters
• After Waterloo a "White Terror" occurred in the
  southern and western regions
• Extreme royalists also controlled the Chamber of
  Deputies,
• Louis XVIII dissolved the chamber
• February 1820 - Duke of Berri, son and heir of
  Artois, was assassinated
• King persuaded the murder was the result of the
  royal concessions to liberals
• Issued repressive measures
• Electoral laws were revised to give the wealthy
  two votes
• Press censorship and arrest of suspected
  dissidents Secondary education was given to
  control of the Roman Catholic clergy
• Reversed much of the appearance of liberal
  constitutionalism in France

25
Challenges to the Conservative Order

• Spanish Revolution of 1820
• 1814 - Bourbon Dynasty restored to Spain
  following Napoleon's defeat
• Ferdinand VII, promised to rule constitutionally
• Dissolved the Cortes, the Spanish Parliament
• 1820 - Group of army officers rebelled
• March 1820 - King Ferdinand restored the
  constitution
• July 1820 - revolution broke out in the Italian
  states
• Outside the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (Naples
  and Sicily), the revolutions failed to establish
  constitutional governments
• Austrians were frightened by the Italian
  insurrections
• Hoped to dominate the peninsula as a buffer
  against spread of the revolution into its
  southern domains
• Britain opposed intervention

26
October 1820 - Congress of Troppau and the
Protocol of Troppau

• Meeting between Austria, Prussia, Russia,
  Britain, and France
• Stable governments can intervene to bring back
  rule of law in unstable and revolutionary
  countries
• Powers were hesitant, however, to sanction
  Austrian intervention in Italy
• January 1821 - Congress of Laibach authorizes
  Austria's intervention
• Austrian troops marched into Naples and abolished
  the constitution, making the Kingdom of the Two
  Sicilies absolutist again
• Metternich attempted to foster policies that
  would improve administration of the Italian
  governments to give them more direct local support

27
1822 - Congress of Verona

• Met to resolve the Spanish conflict
• Britain refused to sanction joint action and
  withdrew from continental affairs
• Austria, Prussia, and Russia supported French
  intervention in Spain
• April 1823 - French troops enter Spain and within
  months suppress the Spanish Revolution, occupying
  the country until 1827

28
Significance of the Spanish situation

• French intervention was not an excuse to expand
  territory or power
• No other interventions of the era were undertaken
  to increase power at another country's expense
• New British Foreign Minister George Canning, who
  led Britain out of continental affairs, was
  interested in British commerce and trade
• Sought to prevent political reaction from seeping
  into Spanish Latin America
• Sought to exploit the revolutions in Latin
  America to crush the Spanish monopoly on trade
• Britain recognized the Spanish ex-colonies as
  independent nations

29
Balkan Nationalism

• Numerous ethnic groups wanted independence,
  including Greeks, Serbs, Albanians, Romanians,
  and Bulgarians
• Serbs and Greeks gained independence in 1830 and
  1821, from the Ottoman Empire
• Serbs envisioned a "Greater Serbia", including
  Ottoman and Austrian controlled Serbs
• Most immediate cause of World War I

30
Greek Revolution of 1821

• Attracted liberals and Romantics from all over
  Europe as a "rebirth of ancient Greek democracy"
• Many fought among the revolutionaries
• Ottomans could hardly hold on to its European
  holdings
• European powers wanted Balkans
• Could not determine what to do if Ottomans fell
  apart
• Britain, France, and Russia
• An independent Greece would benefit them
  strategically and maintain domestic status quo
• 1827 - Treaty of London signed, demanding Turkish
  recognition of Greek independence
• 1828 - Russia sent troops into Ottoman Romania
• 1829 - Treaty of Adrianople
• Russia gained control of Romania
• Ottoman Empire would have to allow Britain,
  France, and Russia to decide the fate of Greece
• 1830 - Second Treaty of London affirms an
  independent Greek Kingdom
• Otto I, the Bavarian King's son, becomes the
  first king of Greece

31
Serbian Independence

• 1804-1813 Kara George waged a guerilla war
  against the Ottoman Empire
• Built national self-identity
• Attracted attention of the great powers
• 1815-1816 Milos negotiated greater administrative
  autonomy for some Serbian territory,
• few Serbs lived within the autonomy
• 1830 - Serbia formally given independence
• 1833 - Milos becoming hereditary prince
• Pressured the Ottomans to extend Serbian borders
• Serbs would seek more territory, creating tension
  with Austria and the other minority groups in
  Serbia
• 1856 -Serbia became under collective protection
  of the great powers
• Deeper relationship had begun between Serbia and
  Russia

32
Revolutions in Latin America

• Haiti
• Started by a slave revolt led by Toussaint
  L'Ouverture and Jean-Jacques Dessalines in 1794
• Popular uprising of a repressed social group,
  rather than discontented Creoles
• Haiti became independent in 1804
• Success of the Indians, blacks, mestizos,
  mulattos, and slaves in Haiti haunted the Creoles
  in Latin America
• Creoles became determined that revolutions not
  threaten their own power

33
Reasons for Creole discontent

• Wanted to trade freely within the region and with
  North America and Europe
• Detested increase of taxes by the Spanish
  monarchy
• Resented the peninsulares who were favored for
  political and military promotions,
• Elites readand adopted the ideas of the
  Enlightenment philosophes,
• Napoleon's overthrow of the Portuguese (1807) and
  Spanish (1808) governments started rebellions
• Disappearance of Bourbon monarchy provided an
  opportunity and political vacuum for the Creoles
  in Latin America
• Feared the liberal Napoleonic monarchy in Spain
  would try to implement reforms endangering their
  own power
• Feared Napoleon would drain the resources and
  economies of Latin America to fund his war effort
  

34
1808-1810

• Creole political committees (juntas)
• Claimed the right to govern regions of the
  continent,
• Claiming they ruled in the name of the deposed
  Bourbon monarchy
• Juntas did away with the privileges of the
  peninsulares
• Spain was permanently ousted from Latin America

35
Rio de La Plata (Argentina)

• Started with a revolt in Buenos Aires,
• 1810 - Junta overthrew Spanish authority and sent
  troops into Paraguay and Uruguay to liberate the
  two regions
• The armies were defeated, but Paraguay became
  independent on its own, and Uruguay eventually
  became part of Brazil
• After the failure in Paraguay and Uruguay, Buenos
  Aires junta was determined to liberate Peru
• A stronghold of royalism and loyalism in Latin
  America
• 1814 - Jose de San Martin,
• General of the Rio de La Plata forces
• Led an army across the Andes Mountains
• 1817 - San Martin occupied Santiago, Chile,
• Allowed Chilean independence leader Bernardo
  O'Higgins to become dictator
• San Martin organized a naval force and by 1820
  set out to attack Peru by sea
• By 1821, San Martin defeated the royalists in
  Lima and declared himself Protector of Peru

36
Venezuela

• 1810 - Simon Bolivar organized a junta in Caracas
  
• Bolivar advocated republicanism
• 1811-1814 - Civil war broke out between royalists
  and their supporters (slaves and llaneros -
  Venezuelan cowboys) and the republican government
  
• Bolivar forced into exile in Colombia and Jamaica
  
• 1816 - With help from Haiti, Bolivar invaded
  Venezuela
• Captured Bogotá, the capital of New Granada
  (Colombia, Bolivia, and Ecuador), securing a base
  for attack on Venezuela
• 1821 - Bolivar captured Caracas and became
  president
• July 1822 - Bolivar joined San Martin to liberate
  Quito,
• Disagreed on the political future of Latin
  America, since San Martin was a monarchist
• San Martin soon retired and went into exile,
• Bolivar established control over Peru in 1823

37
New Spain (Mexico,Texas,California)

• A junta was organized
• Creole priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla called
  for rebellion to the Indians in his parish
• Indians and other repressed groups responded
• Father Hidalgo proposed social and land reform,
• Controlled a loose organization of 80,000
  followers, capturing several major cities and
  marching on to Mexico City
• July 1811 - Hidalgo was captured and killed,
• Leadership went to mestizo priest Jose Maria
  Morelos y Pavon,
• Called for an end to forced labor and much more
  radical land reform
• 1815 - Morelos was executed, and the uprising
  ended
• United Spanish and Creole conservative groups in
  Mexico
• Determined to halt all kind of reform

38
New Spain continued. .

• 1820 - Conservatives' power was challenged,
• from the Bourbon monarchy in Spain
• forced to adopt a liberal constitution
• Conservatives rallied behind royalist general
  Augustin de Iturbide
• Declared independence in 1821
• Supported his declaration as emperor
• Imperial government did not last long, but Spain
  was never again in power in Mexico

39
Brazil

• Brazilian independence was peaceful
• Portuguese royal family came to Brazil and
  transformed Rio de Janeiro into a court city
• Prince regent Joao addressed local complaints and
  expanded trade
• 1815 - Brazil became a kingdom, no longer being a
  colony of Portugal
• 1820 - Portuguese revolution demanded that Brazil
  be restored to colonial status and Joao return to
  Portugal
• Joao left his son Dom Pedro as regent as he
  returned to Portugal, encouraging him to be
  sympathetic to the Brazilians
• September 1822 - Dom Pedro embraced Brazilian
  independence and became Emperor of Brazil, the
  imperial government surviving until 1889

40
Consequences

• New Latin American countries, except for f
  Brazil, were often economically and politically
  unstable
• Disaffected populations threatened the stability
  of the new post-Spanish republics
• Economies plunged and trade suffered
• Wealthy peninsulares fled to Spain or Cuba,
  causing the Latin American governments to seek
  trade relations with Britain

41
RussiaArmy Unrest and Dynastic Crisis

• Russian officers were exposed to ideas of the
  French Revolution
• Radicals, in the Southern Society
• Advocated representative government and abolition
  of serfdom
• Moderates, in the Northern Society,
• Advocated constitutional monarchy, abolition of
  serfdom
• Protection of the aristocracy
• Death of Tsar Alexander I caused two crises
• Unexpected death occurred when he had no direct
  heir
• Constantine, his brother, married a commoner and
  was excluded from the line of succession
• Eventually, Nicholas, his younger brother, became
  Tsar
• Legality of Nicholas's claim was uncertain, until
  a suspected conspiracy made Nicholas declare
  himself Tsar

42
Decembrist Revolt

• Junior officers plotted to rally the troops under
  their command to reformism
• December 26, 1825 - most of the army swore
  loyalty to Nicholas,
• less popular and more conservative
• Moscow regiment marched into the Senate Square in
  St. Petersburg,
• Refused to swear allegiance
• Called for a constitution
• Demanded that Constantine become Tsar
• Peaceful negotiation failed
• Nicholas ordered the cavalry and artillery to
  attack the insurgents, and 60 people were killed
  in the melee
• 1826 - Nicholas presided over the sentencing of
  the Decembrists, executing or sending the
  plotters to exile in Siberia

43
Absolutism of Nicholas I after the Decembrist
Revolt

• Nicholas I came to symbolize extreme absolutism
• Knew economic and social improvement was
  necessary, he feared change
• Abolition of serfdom would undermine aristocratic
  support of the monarchy
• State repression and censorship flourished

44
Official Russian Nationality

• Program presided over by Count S. S. Uvarov
• Slogan was "Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and
  Nationalism"
• Russian Orthodox Church
• Basis for morality, education, and
  intellectuality
• Part of the secular government
• Russian youths were taught to oppose social
  mobility
• Autocracy championed absolute monarchy and
  absolute power of the Tsar
• Nationality glorified the Russian nationality and
  urged Russians to see religion, language, and
  customs as source of wisdom separating them from
  the West

45
November Insurrection in Poland

• Since the Congress of Vienna,
• Grand Duke Constantine controlled the government,
  
• Tsar was the official King of Poland
• Polish aristocrats and Sejm fought with their
  Russian overlords for the Russians' constant
  violation of the Polish Constitution
• Liberal revolutions in France and Belgium
  encouraged Polish nationalists but had the
  reverse effect on the Russian Tsar
• The Russians planned to use the Polish Army to
  crush the revolutions
• The Poles protested and a riot in Warsaw on
  November 29 soon spread to revolution across the
  country
• December 13, 1830 - Sejm declared a national
  uprising and officially dethroned Nicholas I on
  January 25, 1831
• Neither Britain, nor revolutionary France,
  supported the Insurrection
• Prussia and Austria deliberately made it hard for
  the rebels
• By the end of 1831, the Insurrection had fallen,
  the troops disarmed in Prussia
• February 1832 - The Tsar issued the Organic
  Statute, making Poland a part of Russia

46
July Revolution in France

• Louis XVIII died in 1824
• Count of Artois became Charles X
• Very ultraroyalist
• First action was to have the Chamber of Deputies
  in 1824 and 1825 assist aristocrats who lost
  property in the revolution by lowering interest
  rates on government bonds
• Middle-class bondholders resented the measure
• Restored the rule of primogeniture
• Enacted a law that punished sacrilege with
  imprisonment or death
• Elections of 1827 - liberals gained majority in
  Chamber of Deputies and forced conciliatory
  actions from Charles, who appointed a less
  conservative ministry
• Laws against the press were eased, but liberals
  were not satisfied
• 1829 - Charles decided his appeasement policy
  failed and appointed a new ultraroyalist ministry
  
• Liberal opposition, in desperation, negotiated
  with the liberal Orleanist branch of the Bourbon
  family

47
Outbreak of revolution

• 1830 - Charles called for new elections, and
  liberals again won a vast majority
• King decided to attempt a royalist political coup
  and sent a fleet to Algeria, taking control of
  the pirate government
• Reports of the victory reached the capital by
  July 9, and Charles took advantage of the
  euphoria to enact the Four Ordinances,
• Restricted freedom of the press,
• Dissolved the Chamber of Deputies,
• Restricted the franchise,
• Called for new elections under the new royalist,
  conservative franchise
• Liberal press called on national opposition to
  the Four Ordinances
• People of Paris erected barricades in the street,
  
• Battles with royal troops took more than 1,800
  lives
• Troops were unable to crush the uprisings
• August 2 - Charles abdicated and fled into exile
  in Britain
• Chamber of Deputies appointed a new ministry
  which supported constitutional monarchy
• Louis Philippe, the Duke of Orleans, as the new
  King of France

48
The Monarchy of Louis Philippe

• Political developments
• New constitution was regarded as a right of the
  people rather than privileges of the monarch
• Catholicism became the religion of the majority,
  but not the official state religion, the new
  government being strongly anticlerical
• Censorship was abolished
• Voting franchise was extended moderately
• King had to cooperate with the Chamber of
  Deputies
• Social order
• Revolution did not improve the standards of the
  lower class
• Money was the only method of influence in
  government
• Plight of the poor was ignored
• late 1831, the troops suppressed a workers'
  uprising in Lyons
• July 1832, more than 800 people were killed in an
  uprising that happened during a Napoleonic
  general's funeral
• 1834 - Another disturbance in Lyons was brutally
  crushed

49
International development

• King Louis Philippe retained control of Algiers,
  the city that Charles X conquered, and began to
  expand the territory beyond just the coastal city
  
• Occupation of Algeria opened new markets for
  France
• Structures of the Ottoman government were
  dismantled in Algeria
• French empire in Africa expanded further and
  flourished, French settlers coming in to Algeria
  in large numbers
• Immigration of French people into Algeria
  compelled the French government to regard Algeria
  as a province rather than colony of France
• The ethnic integration would pose a problem in
  the post-World War II decolonization later on

50
Belgian Revolution

• Causes
• Since 1815, Belgium had been merged with the
  Kingdom of Holland
• Two countries differed in culture and economy
• Belgians refused to accept Dutch rule
• Encouraged by the July Revolution in France
• Outbreak
• August 25, 1830 - Riots broke out in Brussels
• Municipal authorities and property-owners formed
  a provisional government
• Attempt at compromise failed and troops sent by
  King William of Holland were defeated by November
  10
• National congress wrote a liberal constitution,
  which was put into effect in 1831

51
International Reactions

• Major powers saw the Belgian Revolution as a
  distortion of the borders set by the Congress of
  Vienna, but none were willing to act
• Russia was fighting the Polish rebels
• Prussia and the German Confederation were
  crushing insurgencies in their own land
• Austria was crushing disturbances in Italy
• France favored Belgian independence in the hopes
  of dominating it
• Britain would tolerate Belgian liberalism as long
  as it was not influenced by other nations
• December 1830 - Lord Palmerston, the British
  Foreign Minister, gathered the major powers in
  London to persuade them to recognize Belgium as a
  neutral independent state
• July 1831 - Leopold of Saxe-Coburg became King
• Convention of 1839 guaranteed Belgian neutrality

52
Great Reform Bill of 1832 Great Britain

• 1830 - House of Commons considered the first
  major bill to reform the British political system
  
• Catholic Emancipation Act
• Britain was determined to maintain control of
  Ireland
• In the 1820s, the Irish nationalists agitated for
  Catholic emancipation
• Catholics could now become members of Parliament,
  ending Anglican monopoly of British politics
• Measure alienated Anglican supporters of the Duke
  of Wellington, the Prime Minister,
• King William IV turned to the leader of the
  liberal Whigs, Earl Grey, to form a new
  government
• The Whig ministry
• Riots broke out when the Whig's attempt at
  passing a massive reform bill was blocked by the
  House of Lords
• To stop the riots, William IV agreed to persuade
  a majority in the House of Lords to pass the
  Great Reform Bill
• Expanded the size of the electorate by almost 50
  while keeping a property qualification and
  keeping it only for men
• Some franchise rights were taken away and
  actually disenfranchised some working class
  people
• Act laid the foundations for further reform

53
Liberal vs. Conservative Nationalism

• In the first half of 19th c. nationalism and
  liberalism went hand in hand
• Liberal nationalists believed love of country led
  to love of all humanity
• Liberal ideals included equality, freedom, and
  representative government
• By 2nd half of 19th c. extreme nationalism
  subverted liberal values, contributed to World
  War I, and led to the rise of fascism.