The Scientific Revolution

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The Scientific Revolution

• Key Questions
• What were some new scientific theories and
  discoveries?
• What were some of the effects of these new
  theories?
• What was the new Scientific Method?

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Dawn of Modern Science

• Ancient scholars could provide no information
  about new lands, people, animals
• Age of Exploration led scientists to study
  natural world more closely
• Other things to be discovered, things unknown to
  ancients
• Navigators needed more accurate instruments,
  geographic knowledge
• Scientists examined natural world, found it did
  not match ancient beliefs

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Dawn of Modern Science
Some Middle Ages scholars sought answers about
the natural world from the church. In the
mid-1500s, others began to think in new ways.
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The Scientific Method
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Find the Main Idea What was the Scientific
Revolution?
Answer(s) a new way of thinking about the
natural world that challenged traditional views
and instead relied upon experimentation
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Discoveries in Astronomy, Physics, and Math

• Early scientists
• Made significant contributions in astronomy,
  physics and math
• Began to explain complexities of solar system,
  limits of physical world
• Nicolaus Copernicus, Polish astronomer, among
  first

• Copernicus 1400s
• Found geocentric theory of movement of sun, moon,
  planets not accurate
• Concluded sun, not earth, near center of solar
  system
• Heliocentric theory, earth revolves around sun

• Copernicus theory
• Idea of earth orbiting sun was not completely new
• Copernicus developed detailed mathematical
  explanation of process
• Was first scientist to create complete model of
  solar system

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• On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres
• Copernicus famous book not published until last
  year of his life
• Knew church would oppose work
• Work contradicted teachings of church

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Brahe and Kepler 1500s

• Brahe, Danish Astronomer
• Wrote book proving bright object over Denmark sky
  was newly visible star
• Called it supernova, distant exploding star
  suddenly visible on earth
• Book impressed Denmarks King Frederick II
• Gave Brahe money to build two observatories

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Kepler, German Mathematician

• Hired as Brahes assistant to form mathematical
  theory from measurements of planets
• Published result of measurements of orbit of Mars
  after Brahes death

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Keplers Solution

• Kepler solved main problem of Copernican theory
• Copernicus assumed planets orbited in circle
• Kepler found assumption untrue
• Proved planets orbited in oval pattern, ellipse
• Wanted to prove Copernicus wrong, instead proved
  heliocentric theory correct
• Keplers mathematical solar system model also
  correct

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Discoveries in Astronomy, Physics, and Math

• More support
• Italian scientist Galileo Galilei
• Built first telescope used for astronomy
• Scanned heavens beginning in 1609

• Starry Messenger
• Galileo described discoveries
• Craters on moon, sunspots
• Saturn, moons of Jupiter
• Milky Way made up of stars

• Change in science world
• Isaac Newton, English scientist
• Brought together astronomy, physics, math
• Wondered about gravity

• Principia
• Book explained law of universal gravitation
• Gravity affects objects on earth, also in
  universe
• Keeps planets in orbit

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Newtons Findings

• Newton developed calculus, new kind of math
• Used calculus to predict effects of gravity
• German philosopher Gottfried von Leibniz also
  developed calculus at same time
• Each accused the other of plagiarism
• Historians believe it was simple case of
  independent discovery

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Science and the Church

• Galileos Theories
• Brought him into direct conflict with the church
• Church leaders pressured him not to support ideas
  of Copernicus
• Dialogue concerning Two Chief World Systems,
  1632, showed support

• Trial
• Pope Urban VII ordered Galileo to Rome to stand
  trial before Inquisition
• Church wanted to stamp out heresy, or dissenting
  views
• Trial held, April 1633

• House Arrest
• Galileo stated would not use Copernican theory in
  work
• Received lenient sentence in return
• Pope ordered Galileo under house arrest, where he
  spent rest of life

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Discoveries in Biology and Chemistry
Just as astronomers moved away from the works of
ancient Greeks, other scientists used the
scientific method to acquire new knowledge and
make great discoveries in the fields of Biology
and Chemistry.
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The Development of Medicine
1822 - 1895
1749 - 1823
1578 - 1657
1514 - 1564
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William Harvey
Vesalius
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What does this source tell us about peoples
fears?
Edward Jenner
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The Missing link in medical Science
Pasteur challenged the accepted theory of
Spontaneous generation which argued that
certain forms such as fleas could arise from
inanimate matter such as dust, or that maggots
could arise from dead flesh.
Why do you think people believed this?
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Science and Art

• Renaissance
• Study of art, architecture not separate from
  study of science
• Artists learned anatomy in order to paint the body

• Artists
• Experimented with chemistry of paints, nature of
  light
• Used math to create compositions of perfect
  balance

• Architecture
• Mathematics, physics crucial to great
  architecture
• Also used in engineering achievements of the time

• Science and religion
• Combined to produce great artistic achievements
  of Renaissance
• Most art, architecture dedicated to glory of God

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How did these discoveries help change the world?
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Draw Conclusions How did the Scientific
Revolution have an impact beyond the realm of
science?
Answer(s) led people to question the Church
inspired great artistic achievements led to new
ideas about government, religion, education, and
economics.
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The Enlightenment
Who were some Enlightenment thinkers, and what
were their ideas? How did philosophers of the
Enlightenment influence thinking on political
issues? How did the Enlightenment promote
revolution in the American colonies?
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The Age of Reason

• Scientific Revolution convinced many European
  thinkers about power of reason
• Scientific method and reason led to discoveries
  about physical world
• Wondered if reason could be used to study human
  nature, society
• New generation of philosophers, 1600s
• Viewed reason as best way to understand truth
• Concluded reason could be used to solve all human
  problems
• This time of optimism now called the
  Enlightenment

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The Age of Reason
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Find the Main Idea What exciting conclusion did
philosophers reach during the Enlightenment?
Answer(s) Reason could be used to solve all
human problems.
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Enlightenment Ideas Spread

• Challenged Beliefs
• Writers, philosophers questioned ideas long held
  as absolute truth
• Challenged beliefs in absolute monarchies
• Questioned relationship between church and state
• Debated rules and rights of people in society
• Promoted ideas reformers and revolutionaries
  would later use to change society

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New Views on Government
As the Enlightenment began, European thinkers
began looking for ways to apply reason in order
to improve the human condition.
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The government it self, or the administration of
its affairs, are better committed to one, then
many. (Hobbes, Rudiments, x. 16. 163.)
Any single man must judge for himself whether
circumstances warrant obedience or resistance to
the commands of the civil magistrate we are all
qualified, entitled, and morally obliged to
evaluate the conduct of our rulers. This
political judgment, moreover, is not simply or
primarily a right, but like self-preservation, a
duty to God. As such it is a judgment that men
cannot part with according to the God of Nature.
It is the first and foremost of our inalienable
rights without which we can preserve no other.
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The government it self, or the administration of
its affairs, are better committed to one, then
many. (Hobbes, Rudiments, x. 16. 163.)
According to Hobbes, man in the state of nature
seeks nothing but his own selfish pleasure, but
such individualism naturally leads to a war in
which every man's hand is against his neighbour.
In pure self-interest and for self-preservation
men entered into a compact by which they agreed
to surrender part of their natural freedom to an
absolute ruler in order to preserve the rest. The
State determines what is just and unjust, right
and wrong and the strong arm of the law provides
the ultimate sanction for right conduct.
(Catholic Encyclopaedia Obligation, 1911)
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Any single man must judge for himself whether
circumstances warrant obedience or resistance to
the commands of the civil magistrate we are all
qualified, entitled, and morally obliged to
evaluate the conduct of our rulers. This
political judgment, moreover, is not simply or
primarily a right, but like self-preservation, a
duty to God. As such it is a judgment that men
cannot part with according to the God of Nature.
It is the first and foremost of our inalienable
rights without which we can preserve no other.
The power of the legislative being derived from
the people by a positive voluntary grant and
institution, can be no other than what that
positive grant conveyed, which being only to make
laws, and not to make legislators, the
legislative can have no power to transfer their
authority of making laws, and place it in other
hands.
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New Views on Government
As the Enlightenment began, European thinkers
began looking for ways to apply reason in order
to improve the human condition.
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• Jean-Jacques Rousseau
• French philosopher, believed people basically
  good
• Believed society corrupted people
• Wrote The Social Contract, contract between all
  members of society
• Man is born free but everywhere is in chains.

• View of Government, Society
• Believed government should work for common good,
  not wealthy few
• Individuals should give up some freedoms for
  benefit of community
• Despised inequality in society
• Views inspired revolutionaries in years to come

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Baron de Montesquieu

• Separation of powers
• Best form of government divided power among
  branches of government
• Separation of powers kept individual or group
  from abusing power

• The Spirit of the Laws
• Published 1748, showed admiration of Great
  Britains government
• Powers divided into branches legislative,
  executive, judicial
• Parliament made laws, king carried out laws,
  courts interpreted laws

• Checks and balances
• Misunderstood structure of British government,
  rational conclusion anyway
• Separation of powers allowed each branch to check
  against power of others
• Concept later important structure of democratic
  governments

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New Views on Society

• Some Enlightenment philosophers focused on
  government, others on issues in society
• Francois-Marie Arouet, wrote as Voltaire
• Outspoken philosopher, wrote with biting wit
• Attacked injustice among nobility, government,
  church
• Created enemies, imprisoned twice
• Exiled to England for two years
• Defended principles, fought superstition,
  ignorance
• Lifelong struggle for justice, toleration, liberty

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New Views on Society

• Diderot
• French philosopher
• Determined in mid-1700s to try to compile great
  expansion of human knowledge into a single work

• Encyclopedia
• Diderots extensive 35-volume work, to promote
  knowledge
• Explained new ideas about art, science,
  government, religion

• Lifelong work
• Worked on Encyclopedia 27 years, last volume
  published 1772
• Spread Enlightenment ideas across Europe, North
  America

• Attacks by French leaders
• Criticisms of church, government, legal system
• Tried to stop publication, 1759
• Last volumes completed in secret, but immediate
  success

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• Mary Wollstonecraft
• Enlightenment thinkers still held traditional
  views about women
• Proper roles wives, mothers should receive
  limited education
• Wollstonecraft demanded equal rights for women
• A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, equal
  education for women

• Adam Smith
• Scottish economist, used reason to analyze
  economic systems
• The Wealth of Nations advanced free market
  enterprise
• Strong believer in laissez-faire economics, no
  government regulation
• Believed economy would be stronger if market
  forces of supply and demand were allowed to work
  freely

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Summarize How did philosophers challenge the
accepted way of life in Europe?
Answer(s) They challenged the domination of the
nobility and mostly argued that all men are equal.
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Enlightenment Ideas Spread
The spirit of optimism quickly spread throughout
Europe. A few monarchs became enlightened
despots, changing their systems of government and
ruling according to Enlightenment ideas.
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Enlightenment Ideas Spread

• Russia
• Catherine II became ruler, 1762
• Dreamed of establishing order, justice,
  supporting education, culture

• Reforms
• Drafted Russian constitution, code of laws
• Considered too liberal, never put into practice

• Limitations
• Intended to free serfs, but would lose support of
  wealthy landowners
• Catherine had no intention of giving up power
• Became tyrant, imposed serfdom on more Russians
  than ever before

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Enlightenment Ideas Spread

• Most radical enlightened despot, Austria
• Joseph II, became emperor 1780
• Ambitious reform program
• Eliminated torture, death penalty
• Provided free food, medicine for poor
• Granted religious tolerance to Protestants and
  Jews
• Abolished serfdom, laborers to be paid
• Changes resisted by nobility, church