Ch. 4 Carbon (organic chemistry) Ch. 5 Macromolecules

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Ch. 4 Carbon (organic chemistry) Ch. 5
Macromolecules
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Organic chemistry

• Carbon
• Has 4 valence electrons
• Form covalent bonds not ionic
• Can form straight, branched chains, or rings.
• Hydrocarbons-only carbon and hydrogen atoms
• Not prevalent in living things, but they are
  components of living things

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• Isomers-same molecular formula, but different
  structure
• Structural Isomers
• Different covalent arrangements
• Geometric Isomers
• Different spatial arrangements
• Enantiomers
• Mirror images
• Different isomers of each other will not work the
  same.

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• Functional Groups
• Components of an organic molecule that are
  commonly involved in chemical reactions
• 6 common functional groups
• Hydroxyl Group
• Oxygen bonded to hydrogen, bonded to carbon
  skeleton
• -OH, not OH- (hydroxide ion)
• Called alcohols
• Typically end in ol
• Hydroxyl groups are soluble in water
• Some sugars

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• Carbonyl Group
• Carbon double bonded to a oxygen
• Aldehyde-carbonyl group on the end of a carbon
  skeleton
• Ex. proponal
• Ketone-carbonyl group in middle of skeleton
• Ex. Acetone
• Ketones and aldehydes are structural isomers if
  they have the same number of carbons

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• Carboxyl Group
• Oxygen is double bonded to a carbon, that is
  bonded to a hydroxyl group
• -COOH
• Called carboxylic acids
• Ex, acetic acid, formic acid
• Typically are acids because they give up the H
• Because both oxygen pull electrons away from H

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• Amino Group
• Nitrogen atom bonded to 2 hydrogen atoms
• -NH2
• Called amines
• Amino acids have amino groups and carboxylic
  groups
• Most act as bases
• They pick up spare H to form NH3

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• Sulfhydryl Group
• Sulfur bonded to a hydrogen
• -SH
• Called thiols
• Phosphate Group
• PO3-2 covalently bonded to an oxygen
• OPO3-2
• Transfers energy between organic molecules
• Ex. ATP

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Macromolecules (Ch. 5)

• Basic Principles
• Polymer vs. monomer
• Dehydration synthesis-combining of 2 monomers by
  a process that loses a water molecule
• Hydrolysis-Separation of polymers and adding a
  water molecule

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Carbohydrates

• Monosaccharide-smallest simplest carbs
• Glucose (C6H12O6)
• Fructose (C6H12O6)-structural isomer to glucose
• Galactose-geometric isomer
• Some monomers have
• Less than 6 carbons
• Aldehydes and Ketones
• differ in were the
• oxygen is

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• Disaccharides (C12H22O11) -2 monosaccharides
  joined together by dehydration synthesis
  (glycosidic linkages)

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• Polysaccharides-few hundred to a few thousand
  monosaccharide
• Starch-polymer consisting of all glucose
• 1-4 a Glucose linkages (Amylose)
• Plants use starch to store energy
• Glycogen
• Branched form with a 1-6 linkage at branches
• Animals storage of energy
• Broken down by hydrolysis when glucose is needed

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• Cellulose
• 1-4 ß glucose linkage
• Causes every other ring to be upside down
• Used in plants in their cell walls
• Humans can not break down cellulose because of
  the ß links
• Chitin
• Used by arthropods in their exoskeleton
• Used by fungus in their cell walls
• Similar to cellulose, but contains a N in glucose
  ring

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Lipids

• Hydrophobic
• Consist mainly of hydrocarbons
• Fat
• Glycerol with 3 fatty acids tails (hydrocarbon)
• Also called triglyceride (triacylglycerol)

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• Saturated Fat
• Saturated with hydrogen
• No double bonds in the hydrocarbon tail
• Most animal fat
• Solid at room temperature
• Unsaturated Fat
• Not saturated with hydrogen
• Hydrocarbon tail does have double bonds
• Causes bend in tail
• Liquid at room temperature
• Plant and fish oils
• Hydrogenated vegetable oil
• Unsaturated fat that has been synthetically
  saturated to keep solid at room temperature
  (peanut butter, margarine)

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• Phospholipids
• Glycerol, 2 fatty acid tails, a phosphate group
• Phosphate group has neg. charge, means it is
  hydrophilic
• Double layer phospholipids form the cell membrane
  of all cells
• Steroids
• Carbon skeleton consisting of 4 fused rings
• Cholesterol-steroid found in cell membranes
• Sex hormones

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Proteins

1. Instrumental in almost all life functions
2. Structural support, storage, transport,
   signaling, movement, defense, regulate metabolism
   as enzymes
3. Humans have tens of thousands of different
   proteins each with specific function
4. Proteins are folded polypeptides
5. Polypeptides are chains of amino acids

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• Amino Acids
• Molecule that has a carbon with a hydrogen atom,
  Amino Group, Carboxyl group, and R group.
• R group is a variable group that differs between
  amino acids.
• There are 20 different R groups, so 20 different
  amino acids.

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• Peptide Bond
• Bond formed between the amino group of one amino
  acid and the carboxyl group of another amino acid
  by dehydration synthesis
• Polypeptides range in length from a few hundred
  amino acids to multiple thousands, each with
  unique structure and function

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• Polypeptide to Protein
• Primary structure
• Sequence of amino acids
• One amino acid change can cause different
  function
• Secondary Structure
• Repeated coils or folds due to charges on
  backbone of amino acid
• a Helix
• ß Pleated sheets

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• Tertiary Structure
• Irregular folding patterns
• Due to interaction of side chains (R groups)
• Hydrophobic interactions-non polar groups come
  together away from water
• Hydrogen bonds-between polar molecules
• Ionic bonds-between pos. and neg. charges
• Disulfide bridges-covalent bonds (-SH)
• Quaternary Structure
• Combination of 2 or more polypeptides
• Denaturation-break down of protein shape
• Temp changes, pH changes, solvent changes
• Proteins can return to normal
• Chaperonin-keeps protein protected while folding
• X-ray crystallography-helps us determine shape of
  protein

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Nucleic Acids

• Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid, Ribose Nucleic Acid
• DNA holds information, RNA transfers information,
  Protein carries out information
• Made of nucleotides
• Five carbon sugar (pentose)
• Phosphate group
• Nitrogenous base
• Pyrimidines-6 member ring (C, T, U)
• Purines-6 member ring connected to a 5 member
  ring (A, G)
• Polymers of Nucleotides (polynucleotide)
• Nucleotides covalently bond the phosphate group
  of one to the sugar of another

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