Basic Motivation Concepts

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Basic Motivation Concepts
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Chapter Outline

• What is Motivation?
• Theories of Motivation
• Needs Theories of Motivation
• Process Theories of Motivation
• Responses to the Reward System
• Interpersonal Differences and Motivation
• Integrating Contemporary Theories of Motivation
• Motivation in Practice Perhaps Rewards are
  Overrated
• Caveat Emptor Motivation Theories are Culture
  Bound

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Basic Motivation Concepts

• Outline the motivation process
• Contrast Theory X and Theory Y
• Describe Maslows need hierarchy
• Differentiate motivators from hygiene factors
• List the characteristics that high achievers
  prefer in a job
• Summarize the types of goals that increase
  performance
• Clarify the key relationships in expectancy
  theory
• State the impact of underrewarding employees
• Explain how the theories of motivation complement
  each other

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What is Motivation?

• Motivation
• The willingness to exert high levels of effort
  toward organizational goals to satisfy some
  individual need.
• Need - some internal state that makes certain
  outcomes appear attractive.

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Theory Xand Theory Y

• Douglas McGregor proposed two distinct views of
  human beings one basically negative, labelled
  Theory X, and the other basically positive,
  labelled Theory Y.
• Theory X
• The assumption that employees dislike work, are
  lazy, dislike responsibility, and must be coerced
  to perform.
• Theory Y
• The assumption that employees like work, are
  creative, seek responsibility, and can exercise
  self-direction.

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Hierarchyof Needs

• Physiological
• includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex and other
  bodily needs
• Safety
• includes security and protection from physical
  and emotional harm
• Social
• includes affection, belongingness, acceptance,
  and friendship
• Esteem
• includes internal esteem factors such as
  self-respect, autonomy, and achievement and
  external esteem factors such as status,
  recognition, and attention
• Self-actualization
• the drive to become what one is capable of
  becoming includes growth, achieving ones
  potential, and self-fulfilment

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Exhibit 5-3Contrasting Views of Satisfaction and
Dissatisfaction
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Motivation-hygiene Theory

• Hygiene factors - necessary, but not sufficient,
  for healthy adjustment
• extrinsic factors
• context of work
• company policy and administration
• unhappy relationship with employee's supervisor
• poor interpersonal relations with one's peers
• poor working conditions
• Motivators - the sources of satisfaction
• intrinsic factors
• content of work
• achievement
• recognition
• challenging, varied or interesting work
• responsibility
• advancement

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ERG Theory

• Existence
• concerned with providing basic material existence
  requirements
• Relatedness
• desire for maintaining important interpersonal
  relationships
• Growth
• intrinsic desire for personal development

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McClellands Theory of Needs

• Need for Achievement
• The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a
  set of standards, to strive to succeed
• Need for Power
• The need to make others behave in a way that they
  would not have behaved otherwise
• Need for Affiliation
• The desire for friendly and close interpersonal
  relationships

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Exhibit 5-5Matching Achievers and Jobs
personal responsibility
feedback
Achievers prefer jobs that offer
moderate risks
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Goal-SettingTheory

• The theory that specific and difficult goals lead
  to higher performance.
• Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and
  how much effort will need to be expended.
• Specific goals increase performance difficult
  goals, when accepted, result in higher
  performance than do easy goals and feedback
  leads to higher performance than does
  nonfeedback.
• Specific hard goals produce a higher level of
  output than does the generalized goal of do your
  best.
• The specificity of the goal itself acts as an
  internal stimulus.

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Reinforcement Theory

• A counterpoint to the goal-setting theory.
• In reinforcement theory, a behaviouristic
  approach, which argues that reinforcement
  conditions behaviour.
• Reinforcement theorists see behaviour as being
  behaviourally caused.
• Reinforcement theory ignores the inner state of
  the individual and concentrates solely on what
  happens to a person when he or she takes some
  action.
• Because it does not concern itself with what
  initiates behaviour, it is not, strictly
  speaking, a theory of motivation.
• It does however provide a powerful means of
  analysis of what controls behaviour.

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Expectancy Theory

• The strength of a tendency to act in a certain
  way depends on the strength of an expectation
  that the act will be followed by a given outcome
  and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the
  individual. The theory focuses on three
  relationships
• Effort-performance relationship or the
  probability perceived by the individual that
  exerting a given amount of effort will lead to
  performance.
• Performance-reward relationship or the degree to
  which the individual believes that performing at
  a particular level will lead to the attainment of
  a desired outcome.
• Rewards-personal goals relationship or the degree
  to which organizational rewards satisfy an
  individuals personal goals or needs and the
  attractiveness of those potential rewards for the
  individual.

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Exhibit 5-6Expectancy Theory
Individual Effort
Individual Performance
Organizational Rewards
Personal Goals
1
2
3
1. Effort -performance relationship 2.
Performance -reward relationship 3. Rewards -
personal goals relationship
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Calculating Motivation

• Motivation E x V x I (Expectancy x Valence x
  Instrumentality)
• Expectancy will effort lead to (desired)
  performance?
• ranges from 0 to 1
• Valence how valuable is reward to the
  individual?
• ranges from -1 to 1
• Instrumentality what is the probability that
  performance will be followed by reward?
• ranges from 0 to 1

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Maximizing Motivation Under Expectancy

• If I give maximum effort, will I be able to
  accomplish the task expected of me?
• If I give maximum effort, will it be recognized
  by my manager and/or in my performance appraisal?
• If I receive a good performance appraisal, will
  it lead to organizational rewards?
• If Im rewarded, are the rewards ones that I find
  personally attractive?

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Equity Theory

• Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes
  with those of others and then respond so as to
  eliminate any inequities.
• Equity theory recognizes that individuals are
  concerned not only with the absolute amount of
  rewards for their efforts, but also with the
  relationship of this amount to what others
  receive.
• Historically, equity theory focused on
• distributive justice or the perceived fairness of
  the amount and allocation of rewards among
  individuals.
• however, equity should also consider procedural
  justice or the perceived fairness of the process
  used to determine the distribution of rewards.

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Exhibit 5-7Equity Theory
Perception due to being underrewarded
O/IA lt O/IB
O/IA O/IB
Equity
Inequity due to being overrewarded
O/IA gt O/IB
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Responses to Inequity

• Change Inputs
• Change Outcomes
• Adjust Perceptions of Self
• Adjust Perceptions of Others
• Choose a Different Referent
• Leave the Field

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Equity Theory Propositions

• Given payment by time, overrewarded employees
  will produce more than will equitably paid
  employees.
• Given payment by quantity of production,
  overrewarded employees will produce fewer, but
  higher-quality, units than will equitably paid
  employees.
• Given payment by time, underrewarded employees
  will produce less or poorer quality of output.
• Given payment by quantity of production,
  underrewarded employees will produce a large
  number of low-quality units in comparison with
  equitably paid employees.

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Fair Process

• Distributive Justice
• Perceived fairness of the amount and allocation
  of rewards among individuals
• Procedural Justice
• Perceived fairness of the process used to
  determine the distribution of rewards

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Linking Rewards to Temperament
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Exhibit 5-9Performance Dimensions
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HR Implications

• Improve link between effort and performance
  through
• Training in Skills
• Mentoring

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Summary and Implications

• Need Theories
• Maslows hierarchy
• Motivation-hygiene
• ERG
• McClellands
• Goal Setting Theory
• Clear and difficult goals lead to higher levels
  of employee productivity.
• Reinforcement Theory
• Good predictor of quality and quantity of work,
  persistence of effort, absenteeism, tardiness,
  and accident rates.
• Equity Theory
• Strongest when predicting absence and turnover
  behaviours.
• Weakest when predicting differences in employee
  productivity.
• Expectancy Theory
• Offers a relatively powerful explanation of
  employee productivity, absenteeism, and turnover.