Motivation

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Motivation
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Today we cover

• How does motivation activate, direct, and sustain
  behavior?
• How do people achieve personal goals?
• What is addiction?
• Drugs and Alcohol
• Opiates
• MDMA
• Marijuana
• LSD
• Alcohol

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Motivation

• A need or desire that energizes or directs a
  behavior
• A hypothetical state within an organism that
  propels it toward
• Instigation and maintenance of a behavior
• Achievement of a goal

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Some Definitions

• Instinct A complex unlearned behavior rigidly
  patterned throughout a species
• Homeostasis A tendency to maintain a constant
  internal state
• Drive-reduction theory A physiological need
  creates arousal which motivates an organism to
  satisfy the need

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Definitions

• Needs are states of deficiency
• Drives are psychological states activated to
  satisfy needs
• Needs produce states of arousal which drive
  behavior
• Incentives are external motivators that
  motivate behaviors

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Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

• Crandall Jones (1986) Scale
• Satisfaction of lower level needs creates upper
  level needs
• Motivation enables satisfaction of needs

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Fig. 9.6
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The pleasure principle

• Motivational states
• arouse behaviors that
• solve adaptive
• problems and produce pleasure

• Pleasure is associated with dopamine release, and
  many pleasurable behaviors exceed adaptive needs

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Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic motivation

• Extrinsic motivation external goals
• Intrinsic motivation value or pleasure of an
  activity for its own sake
• Intrinsic motivators
• Curiosity
• Play
• Creativity
• Problem solving
• What happens when you give extrinsic motive for
  an intrinsically motivated activity?

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What Is Addiction?
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Addiction Has Psychological and Physical Aspects

• Physical vs. psychological dependence
• Both negative and positive reinforcement operate
  in producing addiction
• Both social and individual levels of analysis
  contribute to causation
• Experimenters are better adjusted than abstainers

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Dependence

• Physical Dependence
• Psychological Dependence
• kicking the habit
• going cold turkey

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Negative and Positive Reinforcement

• Drugs operate via negative and positive
  reinforcement
• Using positive reinforcement
• Withdrawal unpleasant using again negative
  reinforcement
• Withdrawal symptoms positive punishment

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Psychopharmacology

• The study of the effects of drugs on mood,
  sensation, consciousness, or other psychological
  or behavioral functions

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Stimulants

• Increase behavioral and mental activity
• Activate the sympathetic nervous system
• Interfere with the normal reuptake of dopamine by
  the releasing neuron
• Some stimulants also increase the release of
  dopamine
• Caffeine, cocaine, amphetamines

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Amphetamine Psychosis

• Psychosis resulting from the use of amphetamines
• Paranoia, delusions, hallucinations, and thought
  disorder

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MDMA (Ecstasy)

• stimulates the release and inhibits the reuptake
  of serotonin (5-HT)
• Tuesday Blues
• Therapeutic applications?

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Neurotoxicity of MDMA
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Marijuana

• The most widely used illegal drug
• in North America
• Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)
• THC receptors in the hippocampus
• Impaired focus, attention, comprehension
• Cognitive impairment from heavy marijuana use
  may linger for a week or longer, but it does not
  appear to be permanent" -Harrison Pope

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Opiates

• Analgesic properties
• Opium, heroine, morphine, codeine
• Highly addictive
• Cocaine developed as a cure for opiate addiction

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Hallucinogens

• D-Lysergic acid diethylamide, Psilocybin,
  mescaline
• LSD actions at multiple receptors
• Not physiologically addictive, no withdrawal, and
  no documented toxic fatalities
• Psychosis sometimes prolonged
• Flashbacks and Hallucinogen
• Persisting Perception Disorder
• (HPPD)

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What is Alcohol?

• Alcohol is a sedative
• It is primarily used for recreation, not medicine
• 2nd most commonly used psychoactive drug in the
  world
• (first is caffeine)

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Alcohol Is the Most Widely Abused Drug

• Alcohols believed effects motivate drinking
• The balanced placebo design helps researchers
  separate alcohol effects from alcohol-expectancy
  effects
• Believing one has consumed alcohol can produce
  learned disinhibition of social behaviors

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Fig. 9.16
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The Pharmacokinetics of Alcohol Absorption

• Alcohol is soluble in both fat and water
• This means alcohol is absorbed though the
  gastrointestinal tract and through the blood
  brain barrier
• 20 is absorbed through the stomach the other 80
  through the upper intestine

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Concentration-Effect Relationship
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The Pharmacokinetics of Alcohol Distribution

• Alcohol easily crosses the blood-brain barrier
  because it is lipid soluble
• Alcohol can even cross the placental barrier and
  cause fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). FAS occurs
  in 30 to 50 of the infants of alcoholic
  mothers.

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Effects of Prenatal Alcohol ExposureFetal
Alcohol Syndrome
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Genetic Variation in ALDH
Acetaldehyde Dehydrogenase (ALDH) varies in
Whites, Blacks and Asians. 50 of Asians have
inactive ALDH Elevated acetaldehyde cause
increased flushing, tachycardia (elevated heart
rate), nausea, vomiting hyperventilation.
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Metabolism of Alcohol by Men and Women

• Since men have less fat then women and larger
  blood vessels, men have a lower Blood Alcohol
  Concentration (BAC) than women
• Also, women have 50 less enzyme then men, thus
  the metabolism rate is slower for alcohol
  absorption, so it takes longer for females
  bodies to rid themselves of the alcohol