Motivation

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Motivation

• Sources, Processes, and Systems in Contemporary
  Organizations

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Definitional Issues

• Level, direction, choice, and sustenance
• What kinds of behaviors are motivated?
• Membership or joining the organization
• Minimal task and contextual performance
  expectations
• Attendance behaviors
• Citizenship or extra-role behaviors
• Retention

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General Problems in Motivating Employees

• Motives are in conflict
• Behaviors are in conflict
• Motives change over time
• Motives may be unconscious
• Motives are complex and interact with each other
  and other variables (e.g., personality,
  perceptions, values, etc.)

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Understanding Work Motivation

• Explains the willingness to perform

1. What kinds of things motivate people
(sources)? 2. How does one understand how
motivation happens (processes)? 3. What are the
systems and structures in place in organizations
to elicit the proper behaviors (systems)?
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Sources of Motivation

• What things motivate different people?
• Origins
• Needs, drives, reinforcement through feedback
  processes
• Five sources
• Intrinsic process, instrumental, self concept
  (external and internal), and goal identification

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What is self concept-based motivation?

• Self concept constellation of traits,
  competencies, values, etc. (TCVs) that make up
  ones sense of self
• Perceived self concept what we believe our
  selves are
• Ideal self concept what we would like our
  selves to be
• High vs. low self concept is referring to level
  of perceived self compared to ideal self

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Perceived vs. Ideal Self Concepts
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How does the self concept develop?

• Reinforcement Processes
• Internal self concept consistent and
  unconditional feedback develops internal
  standards
• External self concept inconsistent and
  conditional feedback makes us dependent on
  external sources (i.e., other people)

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The role of feedback

• Internals rely more on direct feedback from own
  performance to provide information about the self
  (task feedback)
• Externals rely more of feedback from others to
  provide information about the self (social
  feedback)

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Other characteristics of the self concept
Strength

• How strong is ones belief in level of perceived
  self as compared to their ideal? (strong vs.
  weak)
• Stronger the belief, the more difficult it is to
  change ones self perceptions

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Level and strength in motivation
Strong
Weak
High Level
Low Level
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Other characteristics of the self concept Use
of fixed vs. ordinal standards of comparison

• What standards does one use to compare ones
  level of important TCVs?
• Fixed standards based on predetermined goal
  levels (e.g., finish a project on time with no
  errors)
• Ordinal standards based on comparing
  performance relative to similar others (e.g.,
  finish a project first with fewer errors as
  compared to others)

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Social Identities

• Role-based identities
• constellation of TCVs relevant to a particular
  role (e.g., financial advisor, mother, softball
  player)
• Global identity
• the sum total of all role identities weighted by
  their importance to overall self concept
• Both global and role-based identities interact
  over time to form our perceived selves

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Recap The five sources of motivation

• Intrinsic process Motivated by engaging in
  activities that are considered fun or give
  pleasure
• Instrumental Motivated by the expectation that
  certain valued outcomes (e.g., money, praise,
  promotion, etc.) are contingent on behaviors

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Recap The five sources of motivation

• External self concept-based Motivated to the
  extent that others provide feedback that
  reinforces or enhances ones perceived self
• Gain acceptance from others
• Gain status from others

Individual continually strives based on feedback
from others that he/she is accepted and has
status among them
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Recap The five sources of motivation

• Internal self concept-based Motivated to the
  extent that performance of behaviors provides
  direct feedback that satisfies ones internal
  standards
• Performance reinforces competencies
• Performance reinforces increasingly higher levels
  of competencies

Individual continually strives based on feedback
from task performance that reinforces competencies
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Recap The five sources of motivation

• Goal identification Motivated to the extent
  that ones values are congruent with those of the
  organization
• Individuals who are goal identified will work
  towards goals of the organization that are
  supported by congruent values
• Example Habitat for Humanity volunteer has
  value of helping others become self sufficient,
  which is congruent with that of the organization

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Processes of Motivation

• How are people motivated?
• What are the major processes by which individuals
  are motivated to perform specific behaviors?
• These are theories of motivation

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Major Theories of Motivation

• Historical Progression
• Greek hedonism
• Instinct theories
• Unconscious motivation
• Drive/need theories
• Reinforcement theories or behavior modification
  techniques
• Process/cognitive theories

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Need/Drive Theories

• Basic model
• Examples Maslow, Alderfer, Herzberg, McClelland
• Hierarchy of lower and higher order needs
• Satisfaction-progression and frustration-regressio
  n hypotheses

Needs Tensions Behavior Need
Satisfaction
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Implications of Need Theories

• Motivational systems should be designed to
  satisfy basic and advanced needs
• Satisfied needs do not motivate behavior
• Employees have different needs, especially across
  cultures (e.g., social vs. security needs vary
  across Scandinavia and Brazil)

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Implications of Need Theories

• Needs are satisfied in different ways for
  different people (i.e., what is rewarding differs
  among employees)
• Must tie rewards that satisfy needs to the
  performance of desired behaviors for the system
  to be motivating (contingency principle)
• Communicate clear performance expectations and
  indicate types and levels of performance will
  trigger types and levels of rewards

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Reinforcement Theories or Behavior Modification

• Basic Model
• Strategies
• Positive and negative reinforcement
• Increase the rate of behavior
• Extinction and punishment
• Decrease the rate of behavior

Stimulus Response Consequences
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Other Elements of Reinforcement Theory

• Schedules of reinforcement
• Contingent and immediate reinforcement
• Fixed interval
• Variable interval
• Fixed ratio
• Variable ratio (gambling schedule)

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Managerial Implications

• Behavior Modification Strategies
• Pinpoint the behavior to be modified
• Measure baselines of the behavior
• Choose a reinforcement strategy and select a
  schedule
• Measure again after a period of time
• Develop new reinforcement strategy and schedule
  if necessary

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Criticisms of Reinforcement Theory

• Black box theory
• How do we specifically define the behaviors to
  change?
• How do we isolate the behaviors to be changed
  from others?
• What contingencies are in place keeping the
  behavior present? (e.g., group norms)
• Encourages people to only perform the behaviors
  that are measured

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Equity Theory Basic Model

• Social comparison process People compare their
  situations to those of others who are like them
  in some way (referents)
• Perceptions, not reality, influence peoples
  behaviors
• Outcome/input ratio of focal individual is
  compared to outcome/input ratio of referent other

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Equity Theory Basic Model

• Perceptions of inequity in these ratios causes
  tension, which motivate focal person to reduce
  these perceived inequities
• Ratios of outcomes and inputs must be in balance
  with referent others to produce a fair
  situation
• Both positive and negative inequity can exist and
  cause tension

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Equity Theory How do People Reduce Inequity
(motivation)?

• Increase outcomes while maintaining same level of
  inputs
• Decrease inputs while maintaining same level of
  outcomes
• Change referent
• Rationalize inequity
• Leave the situation

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Equity Theory Other Questions

• Is everyone sensitive to equity considerations
  (i.e, equity sensitivity)?
• Are there cross-cultural differences in equity
  sensitivity?
• What role does entitlement play?
• What roles do procedural and distributive justice
  play?

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Implications of Equity Theory

• Most people make social comparisons and develop
  perceptions of equity
• Inequity bothers some people but maybe not all
• Inequity motivates people to behave to balance
  their input/outcome ratios and not all of these
  behaviors will be desirable ones

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Implications of Equity Theory

• Managers need to know what equity perceptions
  people have and determine if these are correct
• If people perceive inequity where none exists,
  performance expectations and their links to
  rewards must be clarified
• If inequity does exist, must work on the
  inequities in the performance-reward link

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Implications of Equity Theory

• What role does equity (or lack of it) play in the
  following scenarios
• Secretive pay systems
• Political processes in organization
• Workplace romances?
• Others?

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Expectancy Theory
Motivation is a function of the links between
effort levels, performance levels, rewards, and
the valence of rewards
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Expectancy Theory

• Expectancy link (E P)
• Cognitive link between effort and performance
• Probability that certain effort levels will
  result in certain performance levels (0-1.0)
• Instrumentality link (P O)
• Cognitive link between performance and outcomes
• Probability that certain performance levels will
  result in certain outcomes (0 to 1.0)

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Expectancy Theory

• Valence
• Value of the outcomes to the individual (-1 0 1)
• Outcomes can be both intrinsic and extrinsic
• Examples
• Does one attend class or sleep in?
• How hard does one work on ones career plan?
• What job does one select?

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Assumptions of Expectancy Theory

• Motivation is a conscious and deliberate process
• Rationality in making choices and assessing
  probability and valence levels
• There are no conflicts/uncertainties in
  expectancy and instrumentality perceptions

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Assumptions of Expectancy Theory

• Internal locus of control
• Generalizes across cultures
• Assumes people know all the outcomes of behaviors
  and can place a value on them

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Implications of Expectancy Theory

• Motivation occurs when there are clear links made
  between effort, performance, and desired rewards
• E P link enhanced by increasing self
  efficacy and training in techniques/skills
• P O link enhanced by contingent reward
  systems that link obtaining these rewards on
  appropriate choices and levels of performance

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Implications of Expectancy Theory

• P O link enhanced by knowing what rewards
  have a positive valence and which have no or
  negative valence
• Need to know what behaviors and levels of
  performance have both positive and negative
  valences at the same time
• Theory may not work well with employees who have
  external locus of control

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Implications of Expectancy Theory

• Ability levels and situational constraints may
  impinge on the motivation process
• The link between performance and intrinsic
  rewards are stronger than the links between
  performance and extrinsic rewards

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Relationships between expectancy, equity, and
satisfaction
Intrinsic Rewards
Effort
Performance
Perceived Equity
Extrinsic Rewards
Satisfaction
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What motivation systems elicit proper employee
behaviors?

• Pay and Promotion Systems
• Job and Organizational Design
• Leadership
• Social and Cultural Systems

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Pay and Promotion System

• Types contingent vs. non-contingent systems
• Contingent pay systems are only as good as the
  performance measurement systems (individual,
  team, organizational) upon which they are based

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Performance Measurement Process
Job Analysis
Develop Valid Measures
Develop Performance Criteria
Establish Performance Standards
Measure Actual Behavior
Compare Performance With Standards
Give feedback and rewards
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Types of Performance Measurement Systems

• Graphic rating scale
• Essays
• Rankings
• Checklist
• Behaviorally-Anchored Rating Scale

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Graphic Rating Scale

• Dimension Punctuality
• This teller is always on time for work and
  promptly opens her/his window as scheduled

1 2 3 4
Strongly Disagree Agree Strongly Disagree
Agree
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BARS for Specialty Store Manager Inventory
Control
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Always orders in the right quantities at the
right times
Almost always orders at the right time, but
occasionally orders too much or too little of a
particular item
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4
Usually orders at the right time, but almost
always in the right quantities
3
Often orders in the right quantities at the right
times
Occasionally orders at the right time, but
usually not in the right quantities
2
1
Occasionally orders in the right quantities, but
usually not at the right time.
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Concerns about Performance Measurement

• Job Analysis must be current
• Observation of performance is necessary
• Rater biases Leniency, central tendency, halo,
  recency, and stringency effects
• Should be an appeal process and employee
  participation in the system
• Timing and context are important

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360 Degree Performance Evaluation System

• Multiple raters evaluate employee supervisor,
  coworkers, subordinates, customers
• Assumption these people see different aspects
  of persons behavior on variety of dimensions
• Problems combining ratings, truth-telling,
  paperwork, competitive context

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More pay issues to consider

• Compensation is based on worth of job as
  determined through job evaluation and wage
  surveys
• Competitive strategy and human resource strategy
  determine level of wage rates within firms
• Some CEOs in the US make 600 times what lowest
  level workers make

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What kinds of people are best motivated by pay?

• Instrumental if pay is contingent and equitable
• External self concept pay used as means to get
  positive feedback from others (acceptance,
  prestige, status are tied to paycheck)

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Job and Organizational Design

• Task Design
• Determination of the content of tasks, sequencing
  of tasks, interrelationships among tasks, and
  context of a job
• Task design forms the basic building block for
  organizational design
• Example?

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Characteristics of Task Design

• Task uncertainty (routine vs. non-routine)
• Workflow uncertainty (analyzable vs.
  un-analyzable)
• Task interdependence (pooled, sequential, and
  reciprocal)
• Range of tasks performed (horizontal complexity)
• Autonomy and decision making power (vertical
  depth)

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Types of Job Designs and Schedules

• Simple jobs
• Job rotation
• Job enlargement
• Job enrichment
• Work scheduling options part time, flextime,
  compressed work week, job sharing, telecommuting,
  contracted work

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Diagnosing Jobs for Motivational Potential

• Determine objective and perceived characteristics
  of the job
• Examine for troubleshooting positions,
  inspectors, customer relations positions,
  communication departments, labor pools, narrow
  spans of control, temp work, etc.
• Analyze employee skill levels, needs for growth
  and challenge, satisfaction with contextual
  factors

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JOB CHARACTERISTICS MODEL
Critical Psychological States
Core Job Characteristics
Outcomes
High internal work motivation High
growth satisfaction High general job
satisfaction High effectiveness
Skill Variety Task Identity Task Significance
Meaningfulness
Responsibility
Autonomy
Feedback from job
Knowledge of results
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How to Implement Job Enrichment

• Add self paced control of work activities
• Allow discretion in scheduling work and methods
• Form natural work groups that handle tasks from
  start to end
• Establish relationships with customers
• Allow ownership and responsibility to work

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How to Implement Job Enrichment

• Allow direct feedback from performing the work
• Add some decision making authority to job
• May have to train people to handle additional
  responsibilities
• Change in reward systems, performance appraisal
  systems, and culture might be necessary
• Involve unions if applicable in job redesign

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High Performance Work Systems (HPWS)

• Current systematic attempt to enrich jobs all
  across the organization
• Self managed teams
• Team-based rewards
• Team-based recruitment, selection, promotions,
  and rewards
• Skill based training and reward systems
• Organizational learning processes promoted

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How does task design motivate people with
different sources of motivation?

• Intrinsic process? Enjoyable jobs
• External self concept? Jobs that provide
  positive feedback from others
• Internal self concept? Jobs that provide direct
  feedback from performing the work
• Goal identification? Jobs that are directly
  relevant to carrying out mission of the
  organization

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Leadership as a Motivational System

• Leaders motivate followers by the styles they
  choose to use with them
• Every style is not appropriate for every follower
• Leaders need to be adaptable in their styles

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Internal Leader Characteristics
Outcomes
Leadership Style
Processes
Situational Variables
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Social and Cultural Systems

• Group-based and cultural systems develop as
  people work together
• Consensual assumptions, beliefs, norms,
  expectations, and cause and effect models develop
  and are enforced
• Social structure of the informal system
  results roles, norms, communication patterns,
  informal leadership
• Satisfaction of security, belonging, esteem,
  prestige, and influence needs

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