Motivation

1
Chapter 12

• Motivation

2
Motivation Defined and Described

• Motivation a set of forces that energize,
  direct, and sustain behavior
• Approach Motivation want to motivation
  essentially, motivated to approach positive
  things ()
• Avoidance Motivation have to motivation
  motivated to avoid negative things (-)
• Recall the affective (emotive) aspect or base of
  motivation

3
Sources of Motivation (Exhibit 12.1)

• Motivation is not only a product of certain
  forces, but also a state which depends on the
  Person (P) (internal) and Situation (S)
  (external) factors involved
• Internal Forces (push) ? Content Models
• Emphasize the person more than the situation
• External Forces (pull) ? Process Models
• Emphasize the situation more than the person

4
Content Models and Work-Related Motivation

• McClellands Acquired Needs Theory
• Key thesis Needs drive behavior. Motivated
  action is driven or propelled by the desire to
  satisfy a particular need
• nAff need for affiliation (motivated to
  interact with others in a meaningful way)
• nAch need for achievement (motivated to excel)
• nPow need for power (motivated to lead/control)

5
Content Models, contd.

• Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory (Exhibits 12.4 and
  12.5)
• Two factors explain work motivation
• Motivators (intrinsic) job content factors
• Hygiene Factors (extrinsic) job context
  factors

6
Content Models, contd. (Herzbergs Model)

• Motivators No Satisfaction Satisfaction
• Hygiene Dissatisfaction No
  Dissatisfaction
• Factors
• Absent Present

7
Content Models, contd. (Herzbergs Model)

• Thus
• No Satisfaction
  Satisfaction
• No Dissatisfaction
  Dissatisfaction
• Argues that Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction are
  not the same thing (i.e., they are independent
  concepts), because they are the products of
  different factors

8
Content Models, contd. (Herzbergs Model)

• Present Satisfaction (M)
  Satisfaction (M)
• Dissatisfaction (HF) No
  Dissatisfaction (HF)
  
  
• Motivators
• Absent No Satisfaction (M) No
  Satisfaction (M)
• Dissatisfaction (HF) No
  Dissatisfaction (HF)
• Absent Present
• Hygiene Factors

9
Content Models, contd (Herzberg)

• Problems with the Model
• Satisfaction is not the same as motivation
• No support for the assertions that Satisfaction
  and Dissatisfaction are separate/distinct
  phenomena
• Results are method-bound you only get results
  that support the model when one methodology is
  used

10
Process Models of Work Motivation

• Equity Theory
• Key concept outcomes-to-inputs (O/I) ratio
• The outcomes received, given the inputs
• what Im getting for what Im giving
• Outcomes, not outputs
• Comparison of ones own O/I ratio to those of
  others

11
Process Models of Work Motivation, contd.

• Equity Perceptions within the Model
• My O/I Ratio Others O/I Ratio
• (Equity)
• My O/I Ratio gt Others O/I Ratio
• (Inequity Over-Rewarded)
• My O/I Ratio lt Others O/I Ratio
• (Inequity Under-rewarded)

12
Process Models of Work Motivation, contd.

• Predicted Reactions to Perceived Inequity
• If Over-rewarded worker feels guilty and
  resolves the inequity by working harder to
  justify the extra (unfair) outcomes
• If Under-rewarded the worker feels angry or
  resentful and seeks to resolve the inequity by
• Decreasing Inputs (effort)
• Exiting the Situation (quitting)
• Increasing Outcomes (ask for/demand a raise)
• Changing the Referent (compare to someone else)
• Rationalizing or Justifying the Discrepancy

13
Process Models of Work Motivation, contd.

• Equity Model findings show that
• Under-reward condition is supported, Over-reward
  is generally not very well-supported
• Some people are less equity-sensitive than
  others
• Bottom Line Equity Model thus is more a
  framework that shows what can de-motivate
  people rather than necessarily motivate them

14
Process Models of Work Motivation, contd.

• Expectancy Theory
• Expectancy (E1, E2) a perceived probability
  (0.0 1.0)
• Valence (V) the value or desirability of
  outcomes ( or -, also ranges from 0.0-1.0)
• E1 (E -gt P) Expectancy E2 (P -gt
  O) Expectancy
• Effort -----------? Performance -------? Outcomes
  (V)

15
Process Models of Work Motivation, contd.

• Expectancy formula Mf (E1 x E2 x V)
• E1 the expectancy that effort will lead to
  performance
• E2 the expectancy that performance will lead to
  outcomes
• V the perceived value of the outcomes that are
  available
• Example Motivation to Train
• E1 expectancy (perceived probability) that if I
  try, I can learn and perform the skills taught in
  a the training program
• E2 expectancy (perceived probability) that if I
  perform the skills from the training program on
  the job, certain outcomes will result
• V the perceived value of or desire for the
  outcomes offered

16
Process Models of Work Motivation, contd.

• Example Grade Motivation
• E1 expectancy that if I try, I can perform
  extremely well
• E2 expectancy that if I perform well, my
  efforts will result in an excellent grade
• V value placed on an excellent grade in a
  particular situation (course)
• Best case scenario Mf (1.0 x 1.0 x 1.0)
  1.0 (or 100)
• Otherwise any particular component of the
  formula can weaken overall motivation
• For example Mf (1.0 x 1.0 x .75) .75
• Mf (.5 x .5 x
  .5) .125

17
Process Models of Work Motivation, contd.

• Expectancy Model is generally well-supported, but
  some issues
• Too outcome oriented the Valence of the
  Performance also matters
• Performance depends on things other than
  Motivation (i.e., the link between effort and
  performance is not always so direct)
• Ability
• Opportunity
• P f (Ability x Motivation x Opportunity)
• effort

18
Process Models of Work Motivation, contd.

• Goal-Setting Theory
• Performance is Higher when
• Goals are more Specific
• Goals are more Challenging/Difficult
• Workers are more Committed to Goals
• Clear Feedback on Progress toward Goals is Given
• Very strong research support overall The
  proper use of goal setting Energizes, Directs,
  and Sustains motivated behavior (recall the
  definition of motivation in Ch. 12)

19
Reinforcement Approach

• Increases repetition/probability of
  desired behavior
• Decreases repetition/probability of
  undesired behavior
• Apply/ Punishment Positive
• Administer Reinforcement
• 
  
• Withhold/ Negative Extinction
• Remove Reinforcement (withhold
  reinforcement)
• Negative Consequences
  Positive Consequences

20
Reinforcement Approach

• Motivation via Reinforcement
• Getting What You Want (desired behavior)
• Positive Reinforcement inspires effort
  directed toward approaching something good
• -gt want to motivation or approach motivation
• Negative Reinforcement inspires effort
  directed toward avoiding something bad which
  usually means meeting some minimal standard or
  rule (compliance)
• ? have to motivation or avoidance motivation

21
Reinforcement Approach

• Not Getting What You Dont Want (undesired
  behavior)
• Punishment - providing an undesirable
  consequence to reduce if not eliminate an
  unwanted behavior
• Extinction - withholding positive
  reinforcement that is supporting, feeding, or
  encouraging a pattern of unwanted behavior

22
Excluded Material for Ch. 12

• Need Hierarchy Theories pp. 414 419
• Implications for Job Design pp. 421-423
• Social Cognitive Theory pp. 427-428