Agenda, 92903

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STABLE TRAITS INTELLIGENCE PERSONALITY VALUES NEED
S/PREFERENCES
JOB PERFORMANCE
JOB SATISFACTION
TEMPORARY STATES MOTIVATION EMOTION MOOD STRESS
ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT
WORK CONTEXT LEADERSHIP JOB DESIGN REWARD
SYSTEM ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
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True/False - Motivation

• Money is the best motivator.
• Highly motivated individuals will always
  outperform low motivated individuals.
• Managers do not need to focus on motivation until
  they sense it is lost.
• Motivating high performers is harder than
  motivating low performers.

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Motivation and Performance

• Weve observed lots of cases in which motivation
  has affected performance
• It is assumed
• High Motivation ? High Performance
• Performance ? (Ability x Motivation)

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Motivation

• Reflects an employees choice regarding
• Whether to expend effort directed towards tasks
  that affect performance
• The level of effort to expend
• Whether to persist with the level of effort that
  is chosen

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Job Characteristics

• Five characteristics shape motivation
  satisfaction
• Skill variety extent to which job requires use
  of a variety of skills and abilities
• Task identity extent to which a person is
  responsible for a job from beginning to end
• Task significance extent to which work has
  meaning for employee or society
• Autonomy freedom a person has in his or her job
• Feedback timing and clarity of information
  regarding performance

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Job Characteristics
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Job Characteristics

• How can a manager enhance a jobs
• Skill variety
• Task identity
• Task significance
• Feedback
• Autonomy

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Promote Satisfaction through Mental Challenge

• One clear aspect of the work environment
  consistently influences job satisfaction the
  intrinsic challenge present in the work itself
• Mentally challenging work is critical to
  judgments of job satisfaction and expressions of
  motivated behavior
• When employees rate different facets of their
  jobs, the nature of the work generally emerges as
  the most important job facet
• Of the other facets pay, promotions, etc.
  satisfaction with the work itself best predicts
  overall job satisfaction

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How to increase mental challenge in jobs

• Job rotation
• Allow employees to perform different jobs
• Job enlargement
• Expand the number of tasks
• Job enrichment
• Increase the responsibilities

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Exceptions to the Principle

• Growth Need Strength plays an important factor
• Mentally challenging jobs are important for those
  with High Growth Need Strength (not for those
  with Low GNS)
• All else being equal, high GNS employees prefer
  jobs that are challenging and interesting
• Job Characteristics ? Job Satisfaction
• High GNS, r JC-JS .58
• Low GNS, r JC-JS .32
• Employees value other job attributes
• e.g., Job values, individual needs (affiliation,
  power)

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Summary

• Performance f (Ability x Motivation)
• In general, theories of motivation fall into 2
  categories
• Need theories emphasize satisfaction of basic
  individual needs (preferences)
• Maslows Hierarchy, McClelland (nACH, nPOW, nAFF)
• Job Design Theories emphasize work conditions
• Hertzberg, Job Characteristics

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Why does this matter?

• One of the managers primary responsibilities is
  to motivate employees
• Employees are motivated for different reasons so
  its important to know all motivational options
• Effectiveness of motivational techniques changes
  with the situation
• What works when performance is high may not work
  when performance is low
• What works in a crisis situation may not work
  when work environment is stable

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The FCAT and teacher behavior

• How good is the FCAT as a measure of student
  performance? Teacher performance?
• Is itReliable? Valid? Strategically congruent?
• How does FCAT testing influence teacher behavior?
• To what extent does the reward system play a role
  in shaping behavior/policy?
• Motivating teachers for FCAT performance

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Reinforcement TheoryThe theory of Punishments
Rewards
Suggests that Behavior is a function of its
consequences and the schedule of reinforcements

• Positive Reinforcement
• Praising an employee using incentives
• Negative Reinforcement
• Stopping at a red light to avoid a traffic fine
• Punishment
• Negative consequences (work on the weekend) are
  applied
• Extinction
• Extinguishing a reinforcement that maintains a
  specific behavior

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The Folly of Rewarding A, while Hoping for B

• Steven Kerr (1975)
• Whether dealing with monkeys, rats, or human
  beings, it is hardly controversial to state that
  most organisms seek information concerning what
  activities are rewarded, and then seek to do (or
  at least pretend to do) those things, often to
  the exclusion of activities not rewarded (p.
  769).
• Academy of Management Journal 18 (1975), pp.
  769-783

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Rewarding A, Hoping for B

• Politics
• Official goals are purposely vague and general
  (i.e., build better schools, lower taxes)
• These goals are designed to offend no one and
  are considered low quality, high acceptance.
• Higher quality goals (i.e., those which specify
  where the money will come from) suffer lower
  acceptance.
• The voting public wants public officials to be
  perfectly clear, but describing clear goals is
  not accepted or rewarded.

Are voters hoping for goal clarity but rewarding
vagueness?
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Rewarding A, Hoping for B

• War
• An inherent conflict in battle
• The primary goal of the military organization?
  to win
• The primary goal of individuals on the front
  line?
• to get home alive
• Perfectly rational behavior by those on the front
  lines would endanger goal attainment

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Rewarding A, Hoping for B

• War
• World War II
• What did the GI want? To go home
• When did he get to go home? When the war was won
• Soldiers obey orders to facilitate the end of war
• Vietnam
• What did the GI want? To go home
• When did he get to go home? When his tour of duty
  was over
• Soldiers disobey (or avoid) orders that
  jeopardize personal interests

Was the military implementing a system that
rewarded disobedience, while hoping that soldiers
would obey orders?
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Rewarding A, Hoping for B

• Conclusion
• Managers who complain that their workers are not
  motivated might do well to consider the
  possibility that they have installed reward
  systems which are paying for other behaviors that
  those they are seeking

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Goal-Setting Theory

• A person with higher goals will do better than
  someone with lower goals
• Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher
  performance than easy goals
• In general, specific goals increase performance
  (rather than Do your best)
• People do better when they get feedback on how
  well they are progressing towards their goals

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Goal-Setting Theory

• Has been validated across all job categories
• (postal workers, loggers, engineers, sales reps)
• Presupposes that the goal is attainable
• (unattainable goals may reduce effort)
• Suggests that goal commitment increases when
  employees participate in goal-setting process
• When is goal setting ineffective?
• Goal setting does not necessarily generalize
  across cultures
• Performance vs. Learning Goals?

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Why introduce all these approaches to motivation?

• Each makes a contribution to our understanding of
  motivated behavior (i.e., each helps to explain
  behavior)
• As managers, we need to have lots of motivational
  knowledge in our toolboxes (i.e., the same
  motivational techniques do not work for everyone
  all the time)
• Practical value of this discussion?
• Recognition that motivation is both internal
  (need) and external (job characteristics,
  rewards, goals)

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Another Explanation of Motivated Behavior

• Job Design
• Job Characteristics
• Goals
• Rewards/Consequences
• Individual Needs
• 
  
• Self Efficacy
• An individuals belief about his or her own
  capability to produce designated levels of
  performance

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Self Efficacy

• People with high self efficacy
• Approach difficult tasks as challenges to be
  mastered rather than as threats to be avoided
• Set challenging goals and maintain strong
  commitment to those goals
• Quickly recover their sense of self efficacy
  after failure or setback
• Attribute failure to insufficient effort or
  deficient skills (which can be developed)

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Self Efficacy

• People with low self efficacy
• Doubt their capabilities and shy away from
  difficult assignments
• Exhibit weak commitment to goals
• When faced with difficult situations, dwell on
  personal deficiencies and on the obstacles that
  will be encountered along the way
• Are slow to recover from failure or setback
• Fall victim to stress

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Sources of Self Efficacy

• Mastery Experiences
• Gaining relevant experience with the task or job
• Vicarious Experience
• Becoming more confident because you see someone
  else doing the task VE is most effective when
  you see yourself as similar to the person you are
  observing
• Social Persuasion
• Motivational speech convinces you that you have
  the skills necessary to be successful
• Physiological and Affective States
• Emotional arousal leads to an energized state
  the person gets psyched up and improves
  performance

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Self Efficacy in the Workplace

• Smart managers and coaches
• Create situations that ensure small, progressive
  wins
• Utilize training programs encourage enactive
  mastery
• Find and utilize good role models
• Show how effort is related to outcomes
• In the early part of learning
• Stay close to those with low self efficacy
• Distinguish between process and performance goals
• Consider the consequences of failure for those
  with high and low self efficacy

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Self Efficacy in the Workplace

• Managers can use verbal persuasion through the
• Pygmalian Effect
• A form of self-fulfilling prophecy where
  believing in something to be true can make it
  true.
• Teachers who were told that their students had
  very IQ scores expected more of the students and
  gave them more challenging assignments ? high
  student self efficacy
• Galatea Effect
• Occurs when high performance expectations are
  communicated to directly to the employee.

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STABLE TRAITS VALUES NEEDS PREFERENCES
MOTIVATION
A Summary of our discussion on Motivation