Chapter 4: Observation

1
Chapter 4 Observation Description

• Observational versus Experimental Research
• Observational Research Methods--Case
  Studies--Surveys and Interviews--Participant
  Observation--Direct Observation of Behavior
• How Observational Studies Can--Test
  Hypotheses--Provide an Overview of a Problem
  Area--Answer questions raised by original
  findings--Show us how to replace opinion with
  data

2
Two Classes of Research

• Experimental Research
• Researcher intervenes to make something happen
• Manipulation of an independent variable
• Other influences (variables) held constant
• Non-Experimental or Observational Research
• Researcher does not deliberately make s.t. happen
• Observes/describes carefully
• Observes/measures how one variable varies as a
  second variable varies

3
Case Studies

• Study one or a few cases in depth
• Rationale Rarity of occurrence
• Examples brain damage, rare diseases or
  condition

4
Neuropsychology Example Brocas Aphasia
5
Brocas Speech Area

• Patient Tan suffered from Expressive Aphasia
• Damage to specific area (Brocas Area)
• Localization of function
• Specific case bearing on general issue
• Follow-ups

6
Strengths of Case Studies

• Useful in telling us what can happen (e.g. damage
  to a specific area of brain leads to a specific
  deficit)
• Useful in suggesting new lines of research or
  ideas

7
Limitations of Case Studies

• Generalization Issue
• Tell us something can happen but not whether it
  typically happens
• Susceptibility to two sources of
  error--Observer bias (e.g. see what you wish to
  see)--Observer Effects (e.g. ask for elaboration
  of some statements not others)

8
Construction of survey questions an Art in Itself
9
Surveys Interviews and Questionnaires

• What is true of large groups of cases?
• Proper sampling critical
• Representative sample critical
• Specialized Technique

10
Surveys Problems

• Sampling cases can be very tricky
• Writing survey questions quite difficult--speciali
  zed topic
• Hence no surveys for projects

11
Demographic Study Cohabitation Divorce

• 1940s - 1960s Cohabitation rate increased
• Is it good for couples to live together before
  marriage?
• Two perspectives

12
First Perspective

• Trial marriage (i.e. living together) may prevent
  many unsuitable marriages
• Astin, Korn, Riggs 1993 survey of 300,00
  college students
• 51 agreed a couple should live together before
  marriage

13
Second Perspective

• Cohabiters more likely to regard marriage as an
  experiment than a commitment -gt more likely to
  divorce if dissatisfied
• Investigate (look and see) -gt Surveys (Greeley,
  1991 Bennet, Blanc, Bloom, 1988)
• Finding Couples who cohabitated before marriage
  more likely to divorce (by a factor of 2 to 1)

14
Causality Issue

• Does cohabitation cause a higher level of
  divorce?
• Not necessarily
• Perhaps cohabitation AND divorce both reflect a
  common factor
• What can we say?

15
An Social Psychology ExampleBennington College
16
Bennington College in 1933
17
Bennington Studies

• Attitudes and attitude change
• What is the effect of contact with a society on
  attitude change?
• How were attitudes operationalized?
• Changes?
• Long-term effects

18
Follow ups

• 25 years later
• Problems?
• Appropriate comparison group
• 1st group
• 2nd group
• Concerns? Confounds?

19
Cultural Psychology Explanations of Action

• Explaining peoples actions
• Personality Traits vs Situational Factors
• Miller (1984) interviewed Hindus in India vs
  Americans in the USA
• Results
• Confounds?

20
Participant Observation

• Study behavior of group from the inside
• Scientists participate in groups activities
• Example from Social Psychology The Seekers
• Cognitive Dissonance Theory

21
The Seekers
22
Direct Observation of Behavior

• Observe behavior directly from outside
  situation--watching in a systematic way
• Naturalistic observation
• Ethology Sex and the Stickleback
• Human Ethology 1 Facial Expressions
• Human Ethology 2 Book Carrying

23
An Example from Ethology Sex and the Stickleback
24
Sex and the Stickleback

• Classic ethology study of complex reproductive
  behavior
• Males behavior threat display vs. zigzag
  dance
• What triggers these responses?
• Learned or innate behavior?

25
Human Ethology I Facial Expressions
26
Facial Expressions
27
Laughter
28
Human Ethology II Book Carrying
29
Testing Hypotheses with Observations

• Example from Clinical Psychology Smoking,
  Obesity, and Self-Help
• Example from Social Development Maternal
  Responsiveness and Infant Crying

30
Example from Social Development Maternal
Responsiveness and Infant Crying

• Whats a Parent to do?
• Reinforcement Theory versus Attachment Theory
• Predictions (Figures)
• Bell Ainsworth (1972)

31
Predicted Results
32
Value of Observational Research

• Theory/Data Cycle -- Data to theory
• Exploratory or Open-ended Questions
• Testing Hypotheses
• Correlation does not imply causality
• But correlational studies can sometimes
  disconfirm predictions of causal theory

33
Summary