Chapter 10 Behavioral Objectives

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Chapter 10
Behavioral Objectives
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Types of Objectives

• Educational/Instructional Objectives
  content-oriented, teacher-centered outcomes of
  the education process in reference to an aspect
  of a program or a total program of study
• Behavioral/Learning Objectives action-oriented,
  learner-centered outcomes of the
  teaching/learning process

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Definition of Terms

• Goals the final outcome of what is achieved at
  the end of the teachinglearning process
• Objective a behavior describing the performance
  that learners should be able to exhibit to be
  considered competent

4
Differences between Goals and Objectives
5
Responsibility for Establishing Goals and
Objectives

• Setting of goals and objectives must be a mutual
  decision-making process between the teacher and
  the learner.
• Both parties must buy into and participate in
  establishing predetermined objectives and goals
  prior to initiating the teaching/learning
  process.
• Blending what the learner wants to learn and what
  the teacher has assessed the learner needs to
  know provides for a mutually accountable,
  respectful, and fulfilling educational
  experience.

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The Debate about Using Behavioral Objectives

• Arguments Against
• superfluous
• reductionistic
• time-consuming
• pedagogic
• stifles creativity
• interferes with freedom to learn
• impossible to be inclusive

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The Debate about Using Behavioral Objectives
(contd)

• Arguments for
• keeps teaching learner-centered
• communicates plan to others
• helps learners stay on track
• organizes educational approach
• ensures that process is deliberate
• tailors teaching to learners needs
• focuses attention on learner
• orients teacher and learner to outcomes

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Three Major Advantages to Writing Objectives

• Provides basis for selection and design of
  instructional content, methods, and materials
• Provides learner with means to organize efforts
  toward accomplishing objectives
• Allows for determination as to the extent that
  objectives have been accomplished

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Writing Behavioral Objectives

• Three important characteristics
• 1. Performancedescribes what the learner is
  expected to be able to do
• 2. Conditiondescribes the situation under which
  behavior will be observed
• 3. Criteriondescribes how well or with what
  accuracy the learner must be able to perform

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The Four Step Approach

• To link a behavioral objective together, the
  following three steps are recommended
• 1. Identify the testing situation (condition).
• 2. State the learner and the learners behavior
  (performance).
• 3. State the performance level (criterion).
• 4. State how well the learner will perform the
  criterion (percent accuracy).

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The ABCD Rule

• AAudience
• BBehavior
• CCondition (under what circumstances)
• DDegree (how much, to what extent)

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Common MistakesWhen Writing Objectives

• describing what the instructor will do rather
  than what the learner will do
• including more than one behavior in a single
  objective
• forgetting to include all three characteristics
• using performance terms subject to many
  interpretations and that are not action-oriented

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Common Mistakes (contd)

• writing an unattainable, unrealistic objective
• writing objectives unrelated to stated goal
• cluttering an objective with unnecessary
  information
• making an objective too general so that the
  outcome is not clear

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Taxonomy of Objectives

• Behavior is defined according to type (domain
  category) and level of complexity (simple to
  complex).
• Three Types of Learning Domains
• 1. Cognitivethe thinking domain
• 2. Affectivethe feeling domain
• 3. Psychomotorthe skills domain

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Writing SMART Objectives

• SSpecific
• MMeasurable
• AAchievable
• RRealistic
• TTimely

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Complexity of Domain Levels

• Objectives in each domain are classified in a
  taxonomic form of hierarchy into low (most
  simple), medium (moderately difficult),
  and high (most complex) levels of behavior.
• Cognitive Levels
• knowledge evaluation
• Affective Levels
• receiving characterization
• Psychomotor
• perception origination

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Teaching in the Cognitive Domain

• Learning in this domain involves acquisition of
  information based on the learners intellectual
  abilities and thinking processes.
• Methods most often used to stimulate learning in
  the cognitive domain include
• - lecture
• - one-to-one instruction
• - computer-assisted instruction

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Teaching in the Cognitive Domain (contd)

• Cognitive-domain learning is the traditional
  focus of most teaching.
• Cognitive knowledge is an essential prerequisite
  for learning affective and psychomotor skills.

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Teaching in the Affective Domain

• Learning in this domain involves an increasing
  internalization or commitment to feelings
  affective learning involves the degree to which
  feelings or attitudes are incorporated into ones
  personality or value system
• Methods most often used to stimulate learning in
  the affective domain include
• - group discussion - role-modeling
• - simulation gaming - questioning
  
• - role-playing

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Teaching in the Affective Domain
(contd)

• Nurse educators are encouraged to attend to the
  needs of the whole person by recognizing that
  learning is subjective and values driven.
• More time in teaching needs to focus on exploring
  and clarifying learner feelings, emotions, and
  attitudes.

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Teaching in the Psychomotor Domain

• Learning in this domain involves acquiring
  fine and gross motor abilities with increasing
  complexity of neuromuscular coordination.
• Methods most often used to stimulate learning in
  the psychomotor domain include
• - demonstration - return demonstration
• - simulation - gaming
• - self-instruction

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Factors Influencing Psychomotor Skill Acquisition

• The amount of practice required to learn a new
  skill varies with the individual, depending upon
  such things as
• - readiness to learn
• - motivation to learn
• - past experience
• - health status

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Factors Influencing Psychomotor Skill Acquisition
(contd)

• - environmental stimuli
• - anxiety level
• - developmental stage
• - practice session length

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Development of Teaching Plans

• Predetermined goals and objectives serve as a
  basis for developing a teaching plan.
• Mutually agreed upon goals and objectives clarify
  what the learner is to learn and what the teacher
  is to teach.

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Reasons to Construct Teaching
Plans

• 1. Ensures a logical approach to teaching and
  keeps instruction on target.
• 2. Communicates in writing an action plan for
  the learner, teacher, and other providers.
• 3. Serves as a legal document that indicates a
  plan is in place and the extent of progress
  toward implementation.

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Teaching in the Psychomotor Domain (contd)

• Psychomotor skill development is very
  egocentric and requires learner concentration.
• Asking questions that demand a cognitive or
  affective response during psychomotor learning
  interferes with psychomotor performance.
• The ability to perform a skill is not equivalent
  to learning a skill (performance is transitory
  learning is more permanent).
• Practice makes perfectrepetition leads to
  perfection and reinforcement of behavior.

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Basic Elements of a Teaching Plan

• Purpose
• Goal statement
• Objectives (sub-objectives)
• Content outline
• Methods of teaching
• Time allotment
• Resources for instruction
• Evaluation

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The Major Criterion for Judging a Teaching Plan

• Internal consistency exists when you can answer
  yes to the following questions
• - Does the plan facilitate a relationship
  between its parts?
• - Do all 8 elements of the plan hang together?

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The Major Criterion for Judging a Teaching Plan
(contd)

• - Is the identified domain of learning in each
  objective reflected in the purpose and goal, as
  well as across the plan, all the way through to
  the end process of evaluation?

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Use of Learning Contracts

• Learning Contract A written (formal) or
  verbal (informal) agreement between the teacher
  and the learner that delineates specific teaching
  and learning activities that are to occur
  within a certain time frame.
• Purpose of a Learning Contract
• to encourage learners active participation
• to improve teacherclient communication

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Use of Learning Contracts (contd)

• Learning contracts
• are an increasingly popular approach to teaching
  and learning.
• serve as an alternative and innovative technique
  that embodies the principles of adult learning.
• can be used with any audience of adult learners.

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Use of Learning Contracts (contd)

• empower the learner by emphasizing
  self-direction, mutual negotiation, and mutual
  evaluation of competency.
• stress shared accountability between the teacher
  and the learner.

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Components of the Learning Contract

• Four major components
• Contentspecifies precise behavioral objectives.
• 2. Evaluationspecifies criteria by which
  competencies will be judged.

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Components of Learning Contract (contd)

• 3. Performance expectationsspecify conditions by
  which learning will be achieved.
• 4. Time framespecifies length of time needed for
  successful achievement of objectives.

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The Concept of Learning Curve

• Learning Curve A graphic depiction of
• changes in psychomotor performance at
• different stages of practice during a
• specified time period
• Six stages of the theoretical learning curve
• The irregularity of individual learning curves

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State of the Evidence

• Educational literature has plenty of evidence
  establishing the value and utility of behavioral
  objectives.
• Taxonomic hierarchy for categorizing behaviors
  has also been established.
• Body of evidence on teaching plans is available.
• Educational literature has new research on
  learning contracts, psychomotor skill
  acquisition, learning curve concept.

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Summary

• Assessment of the learner is a prerequisite to
  formulating objectives.
• Writing clear and concise behavioral objectives
  is fundamental to the education process.
• Goals and objectives serve as a guide to
  planning, implementation, and evaluation of
  teaching and learning.

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Chapter 11Instructional Methods
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Instructional Methods

• Definition
• Techniques or approaches that the teacher uses to
  bring the learner in contact with the content to
  be learned

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Instructional Methods

• Lecture
• Group Discussion
• One-to-One Instruction
• Role-playing
• Self-instruction

• Demonstration
• Return Demonstration
• Gaming
• Simulation
• Role-modeling

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Lecture

• Definition
• An instructional method in which the teacher
  verbally transmits information directly to groups
  of learners for the purpose of education. It is
  highly structured.

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Lecture

• Advantages
• Cost effective
• Targets large groups
• Useful for cognitive domain learning

• Limitations
• Not individualized
• Passive learners

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Group Discussion

• Definition
• An instructional method in which learners are
  together to exchange information, feelings, and
  opinions with each other and the teacher to
  achieve educational objectives

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Group Discussion

• Advantages
• Stimulates sharing of ideas and emotions
• Active learners
• Useful for cognitive and affective domains of
  learning

• Limitations
• Shy member does not participate
• Dominant member overwhelms the group
• Highly diverse groups may have difficulty
  interacting

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One-to-One Instruction

• Definition
• An instructional method in which the teacher
  delivers personally designed instruction to a
  learner.

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One-to-One Instruction

• Advantages
• Active learner
• Tailored to individuals needs and goals
• Useful for all three learning domains

• Limitations
• Can be expensive because it is labor intensive
• Isolates learner

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Demonstration

• Definition
• An instructional method in which the learner is
  shown by the teacher how to perform a particular
  skill

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Demonstration

• Advantages
• Previews exact skill for the learner
• Useful for psychomotor domain learning

• Limitations
• May be expensive because all learners need to
  easily visualize skill. This requires use of
  technology or small groups.

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Return Demonstration

• Definition
• An instructional method in which the learner
  attempts to perform a skill with cues from the
  teacher as needed

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Return Demonstration

• Advantages
• Active learner
• Individual guidance
• Useful for psychomotor domain learning

• Limitations
• Viewing individual performance is labor intensive

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Gaming

• Definition
• An instructional method requiring the learner to
  participate in a competitive activity with preset
  rules to achieve an educational objective

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Gaming

• Advantages
• Active learner
• Perceived as fun by many learners
• Useful for all three domains of learning

• Limitations
• Too competitive for some learners

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Simulation

• Definition
• An instructional method requiring creation of a
  hypothetical or artificial experience to engage
  the learner in an activity that reflects
  real-life conditions without the risk-taking
  consequences of an actual experience

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Simulation

• Advantages
• Active learners
• Practice reality in a safe setting
• Useful for cognitive and psychomotor domains of
  learning

• Limitations
• Labor intensive
• Costs of equipment

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Role-Playing

• Definition
• An instructional method where learners
  participate in an unrehearsed dramatization to
  elicit their feelings to achieve affective domain
  objectives

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Role-Playing

• Advantages
• Active learner
• Develops understanding of others
• Useful for affective domain learning

• Limitations
• Learner can exaggerate or under-develop the role

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Role-Modeling

• Definition
• An instructional method in which the teacher
  models or exhibits behaviors that the learner
  may imitate or adopt as he or she is socialized
  into a role. Learning from role-modeling is
  called identification and emanates from
  socialization theories.

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Role-Modeling

• Advantages
• Helps with socialization into role
• Useful for affective domain learning

• Limitations
• Requires rapport between teacher and learner

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Self-Instruction

• Definition
• An instructional method to provide activities
  that guide the learner in independently achieving
  the educational objectives

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Self-Instruction

• Advantages
• Self-paced
• Cost-effective
• Consistent
• Useful for cognitive domain learning

• Limitations
• Learner may procrastinate
• Requires literacy

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Factors in Selection ofInstructional Methods

• What are the predetermined objectives?
• What are the characteristics of the targeted
  audience?
• What resources are available?
• What are the teachers strengths and limitations?

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Evaluation of Instructional Methods

• Did learners achieve their objectives?
• Was the activity accessible to targeted learners?
• Were available resources used efficiently?
• Did the method accommodate the learners needs,
  abilities, and style?
• Was the approach cost-effective?

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Creative Techniques to Enhance Verbal
Presentations

• Enthusiasm
• Humor
• Risk-taking
• Drama
• Problem-solving
• Role-modeling
• Anecdotes
• Technology

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General Principles for All Teachers

• Give positive reinforcement.
• Project acceptance/sensitivity.
• Be organized, give direction.
• Elicit and provide feedback.
• Use questioning.
• Know your audience.
• Use repetition.
• Summarize key points.

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Instructional Settings

• Healthcare setting
• Health-related setting
• Nonhealthcare setting

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Sharing Resources

• Nurses in each of the setting types can
  establish a health education committee to
  coordinate health education programming, ensure
  effective use of resources, and avoid duplication
  of efforts.

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Chapter 12Instructional Materials
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Instructional MaterialsPrint and Nonprint Media

• Definition the tangible substances and real
  objects used to help communicate information
  necessary for learning
• Purposes to help the nurse educator deliver a
  message creatively and clearly

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General Principles of Effectiveness

• Media should
• Change behavior by influencing a gain in
  cognitive, affective, and/or psychomotor skills
• Enhance learningno one tool is better than
  another
• Complement the instructional methods

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General Principles (contd)

• Media should (contd)
• Match available financial resources
• Be appropriate for physical environment
• Complement learners sensory abilities,
  developmental stage, and educational level
• Impart accurate, current, valid and appropriate
  messages
• Add diversity and information to learning

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Choosing Instructional Materials

• Major Variables to Consider
• Characteristics of the Learner
• Physical abilities
• Perceptual abilities
• Literacy
• Motivational level
• Developmental stage
• Learning style

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Major Variables to Consider (contd)

• Characteristics of the Media
• Print
• Nonprint
• Characteristics of the Task
• Learning domain
• Complexity of behavior

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Three Major Components of Instructional Materials

• Delivery System
• Definition both the physical form and the
  hardware used to present materials
• Examples of physical form and hardware
• Slides with projector
• Videotapes with VCRs
• Computer software with computer

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Components (contd)

• Content
• Definition actual information imparted to the
  learner
• Selection criteria
• Accuracy
• Appropriateness for skill determination
• Readability

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Components (contd)

• Presentation
• Definition the form most important for
  selecting/developing instructional materials
• Concrete to abstract continuum
• Realia
• Illusionary representations
• Symbolic representations

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Types of Instructional Materials

• Written Materials
• Advantages
• Available to learner in absence of teacher
• Widely acceptable, familiar
• Readily available, relatively cheap
• Convenient form
• Learner controls rate of reading
• Content easily altered to target specific
  audiences

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Written Materials (contd)

• Disadvantages
• Most abstract form of reality
• Immediate feedback limited
• Proper reading level essential for full
  usefulness
• Less useful with low literate learners or
  visually or cognitively impaired learners
• Inappropriate for illiterate learners

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Written MaterialsCommercially Prepared

• Factors to be considered
• Who produced the item? Was there any input by
  healthcare professionals?
• Can the item be previewed?
• The price must be consistent with its educational
  value.

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Written MaterialsInstructor ComposedGuidelines
for Effective Writing

• Fit your own institutions policies, procedures
  and equipment.
• Build in answers to those questions asked most
  frequently by your patients.
• Highlight points considered especially important
  by your healthcare team.
• Reinforce specific oral instructions and clarify
  difficult concepts.

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Guidelines for Effective Writing (contd)

• Keep words and sentences short. Use
  conversational style. Use active voice.
• Use second person you.
• Most important information goes first.
• Do not use all-capital letters.
• Use advance organizers.
• Emphasize key points with end review.

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Evaluating Printed Materials

• Consider
• Nature of the audience
• Literacy level required
• Linguistic variety available
• Brevity and clarity
• Layout and appearance
• Opportunity for repetition
• Concreteness and familiarity

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Demonstration Materials Displays

• Advantages
• Fast way to attract attention, make a point
• Flexible
• Portable
• Reusable
• Stimulate interest or ideas in observer
• Can change or influence attitudes
• Purchasable and/or can be made

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Demonstration MaterialsDisplays (contd)

• Disadvantages
• Take up a lot of space
• Time-consuming to prepareoften reused, outdated
• May be overused
• Unsuitable for large audiences

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Demonstration MaterialsPosters as Popular
Display Tools

• Consider
• Color
• White space
• Graphics
• KISS principle
• Titles/Script
• Balance of content

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Demonstration Materials Models

• Advantages
• Useful when real object is too small, too large,
  too expensive, unavailable, or too complex
• Allows safe, hands-on practice
• More active involvement by the learner with
  immediate feedback available
• Readily available

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Demonstration MaterialsModels (contd)

• Disadvantages
• May not be suitable for learner with poor
  abstraction abilities or for visually impaired
• Some models fragile, expensive, bulky, or
  difficult to transport
• Cannot be observed or manipulated by more than a
  few learners at a time

87
Demonstration MaterialsThree Specific Types of
Models

• Replicas
• Examples anatomical models, resuscitation dolls
• Analogues
• Examples dialysis machines, computer models
• Symbols
• Examples words, cartoons, formulas, signs

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Audiovisual Materials

• Factors in selection
• Technical feasibility
• Economic feasibility
• Social/political acceptability
• Instructor familiarity

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Audiovisual Materials (contd)

• Projected Learning Resources
• Movies and filmstrips
• Power Points
• Overhead transparencies

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Projected Learning Resources

• Advantages
• Most effectively used with groups
• Especially beneficial with hearing-impaired,
  low-literate learners
• Excellent media for use in teaching psychomotor
  skills

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Projected Learning Resources (contd)

• Disadvantages
• Lack of flexibility due to static content of some
  forms
• Some forms may be expensive
• Requires darkened room for some forms
• Requires special equipment for use

92
Audio Learning Resources

• Audiotapes, Radio, CD
• Advantages
• Widely available
• May be especially beneficial to
  visually-impaired, low literate learners
• May be listened to repeatedly
• Most forms practical, cheap, small, portable

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Audio Learning Resources (contd)

• Disadvantages
• Relies only on sense of hearing
• Some forms may be expensive
• Lack of opportunity for interaction between
  instructor and learner

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Video Learning Resources

• Purchased or self-made tapes
• Advantages
• Widely used educational tool
• Inexpensive uses visual, auditory senses
• Flexible for use with different audiences
• Powerful tool for role-modeling and demonstration
• Effective for teaching psychomotor skills

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Video Learning Resources (contd)

• Disadvantages
• Quality of videotapes can deteriorate over time
• Some commercial products may be expensive
• Some purchased materials may be too long or
  inappropriate for audience

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Telecommunications Learning Resources

• Telephones, Televisions
• Advantages
• Relatively inexpensive, widely available
• Disadvantages
• Complicated to set up interactive capability
• Expensive to broadcast via satellite

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Computer Learning Resources

• Advantages
• Interactive potential quick feedback, retention
• Potential database is enormous
• Can individualize to suit different types of
  learners, different pace of learning
• Time efficient

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Computer Learning Resources(contd)

• Disadvantages
• Primary learning efficacy cognitive domain less
  useful for attitude/behavior change or
  psychomotor skill development
• Software and hardware expensive
• Must be purchased
• Limited use for most older adults, low literate
  learners, those with physical limitations

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Evaluation Criteria forSelecting Materials

• Considerations
• Learner characteristics
• Task(s) to be achieved
• Media available
• Evaluation Checklist
• Content
• Instructional design
• Technical production
• Packaging

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State of the Evidence

• Performance is improved and learner satisfaction
  increased with visual reinforcement.
• Distance learning is an increasingly viable
  option for learners.

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Summary

• Instructional materials should be used to
  support learning by complementing and
  supplementing your teaching, not by substituting
  for it.