Soil Basics From the Ground, Up

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Soil BasicsFrom the Ground, Up!
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Information on this Program

• My Website
• http//lake.osu.edu
• Links
• Weather stations
• Pest Management Informations
• Programs

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Siewerts Theorems of Forestry

• Trees are not native to the urban environment.
• As the roots go, so does the top of the tree.
• Transplanting is not a natural process.
• The relative speed of life is much slower in
  trees than in humans.
• The pest that causes the most damage to urban
  trees are humans.

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SOIL Problems
Trials and Tribulations
Slide 3
Slide 1
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SOIL Problems
Soil-Related Plant Problems
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SOIL Problems
More Problems
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• Healthy Plants
• Friable soils
• Proper nutrient balance
• Proper soil pH acid vs. alkaline
• Proper root and crown spacing
• Ample soil moisture
• Proper soil temperature
• Proper light levels
• Pure air
• Free of insects and diseases

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Soils are a combination of weathered rock,
organic matter, and a vast complex of living
organisms.
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Soil-Plant Relationships
A. Environmental Factors ? Temperature ?
Water ? Light ? Soil structure ?
Soil organisms
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SOIL From the Ground, Up!
Soil Forming Factors These 5 factors work
together to create a unique soil profile made of
layers called horizons.
Parent Material
Biota
Topography
Climate
Time
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Soil is..loose surface of the earth as
distinguished from solid rock.
Source Western Fertilizer Handbook
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SOIL From the Ground, Up!
Soil Profile
it looks like a layer cake
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Native Soils
A Horizon more air and biological activity B
Horizon lighter color, less air color of
subsoil will help determine the amount of air in
the soil Bed rock or parent material
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SOIL From the Ground, Up!
Soil Properties

• Physical Properties
• Soil Texture, Consistency, Structure
• Soil Compaction (Bulk Density)
• Soil Moisture
• Chemical Properties
• pH
• Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)
• Mineral Nutrient Availability

• Biological Properties
• Microorganisms
• bacteria
• fungi (e.g. mycorrhizas)
• protozoa
• nematodes
• Macroorganisms
• arthropods
• earthworms
• nematodes
• Decomposition / Nutrient Recycling
• Aeration
• Aggregation (e.g. microbial glue)

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Things Plants Must Obtain From the Soil
Source The Landscape Below Ground
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well
water table
surface water
unsaturated zone
Aquifer (saturated zone)
fractured bedrock
gravel
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The Size of Mineral Particles
SAND
.
CLAY
SILT
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Water and Soil Moisture
Relationship between soil texture and water
availability
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Water and Soil Moisture
Soil Moisture some terms and concepts

• Field Capacity water that remains in soil
  beyond the effects of gravity.
• Permanent Wilting Percentage amount of water
  after the permanent wilting point is reached.
• Available Water amount of water in the soil
  between the field capacity and the permanent
  wilting percentage.

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How Does Water Move in the Soil
Percolation- water moving downward in the soil.
Excess water on the surface will cause runoff.
Capillary Action- water moving up in the soil
through the small pores against gravity. Seepage
- water moving sideways in the soil . Much of
this water can move into basements and open
sites. Runoff water that cant be absorbed
into the soil so it moves down hill. Issues are
erosion and loss of nutrients ( water
contamination)
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Summary of Water Movement
Water and Soil Moisture

• Rate of movement in soil depends on
• Particle sizes (texture) and particle size
  distribution
• Pore space (structure) and consistency
• Soil aggregation
• Compaction (measured by Bulk Density)

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Rate at Which Water Moves in the Soil
Soil Types Infiltration rates
(inches/hour)
Sand gt0.8 Sandy silty
soils 0.4 to 0.8 Loams 0.2 to 0.4 Clay
soils 0.04 to 0.2
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Soil
Physical Properties
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SOIL Physical Properties
Physical Properties of Soil

• Texture the mineral components
• Consistency Structure how the soil is put
  together
• Compaction (measured by Bulk Density)
• Soil Moisture

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SOIL Physical Properties
Soil Texture

• The way the soil feels is called the soil
  texture.
• Soil texture depends on the amount of each size
  of mineral particles in the soil.
• Sand, silt, and clay are names that describe the
  size of individual mineral particles in the soil.
• Sand are the largest particles and they fell
  gritty
• Silt are medium sized, and they feel soft, silky
  or floury
• Clay are the smallest sized particles, and they
  feel sticky

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SOIL Physical Properties
Soil Texture Relative Size Comparison of Soil
Particles
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Soil Texture physical properties that describe
the relationship of mineral particles in the soil
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SOIL Physical Properties
Soil Structure

• How the soil is put together the shape
• It results from the interaction of the three soil
  properties
• Texture
• Biological
• Chemical
• Once soil structure is destroyed, it cannot be
  re-created exactly the way it was.
• But, good soil structure can be recovered if
  you understand how soil properties interact to
  create it.
• Biological properties are very important to
  recovery.

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SOIL Physical Properties
Basic Soil Components
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The Living Soil Biological Properties
A Soil Aggregate Biologically Produced
Microbial glue is the stuff that holds it all
together!
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The Living Soil Biological Properties
Aggregated Soil
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ORGANIC MATTERS!
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Creating Urban Soils ? Compaction ? Increase
temperature extremes ? Interrupted
nutrient/organic recycling ? Presence of a
hydrophobic crust ? Generally elevated reaction
(pH) ? High specific conductivity where salts are
used ? Presence of anthropeic materials or
contaminants (plastic, glass, trash) affects
movement of roots and water
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Soil Structure and Compaction
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Aggregated Soil
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Soil Structure and Compaction
Compaction decreases macropores by crushing
aggregates. Micropores cannot be reduced unless
soil particles fracture, so they usually increase
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Soil Structure and Compaction
Bulk Density a measure of soil compaction
To calculate Bulk Density
1.33
Volume 1 cm3
Bulk Density
1
Weight 1.33 gms
Weight of Soil
Bulk Density
1.33 gms / cm3
Bulk Density
Volume of Soil
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Soil Structure and Compaction
Dr. Kim Coder, Univ. of Georgia
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Soil Structure and Compaction
Bulk Density Compaction Zones
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Soil Structure and Compaction
Where the rubber meets more than the road!
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Soil Structure and Compaction
Soil Compaction Crushing Aggregates
Water Infiltration
Crusting Water Runoff
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Impermeable Layer Compacted Zone
Soil Structure and Compaction
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Water
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well
water table
surface water
unsaturated zone
Aquifer (saturated zone)
fractured bedrock
gravel
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Relative Water Usage of Different Types of Plants
grass
shrubs and groundcovers
trees
Estimated typical water usage of varying plant
types in relative amounts the amount of water
needed by plants varies with location and
climate. generally, lawns use more water than
trees, and trees use more water than both shrubs
and groundcovers.
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Roots absorb nutrients as water carries it to them
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Pore and Air-Water Movement
available air in macropore
water
soil particle
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Water and Soil Moisture
Soil Moisture some terms and concepts

• Field Capacity water that remains in soil
  beyond the effects of gravity.
• Permanent Wilting Percentage amount of water
  after the permanent wilting point is reached.
• Available Water amount of water in the soil
  between the field capacity and the permanent
  wilting percentage.

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Water and Soil Moisture
Soil at Different Moisture Levels
At Saturation
At Available Water
Pore Spaces are filled with water
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Water and Soil Moisture
Soil at Different Moisture Levels
At Permanent Wilt (Cannot Support Plants)
Little water remains attached to soil particles
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Water and Soil Moisture
At Available Moisture, water is held by
electro-static forces on the surface of the soil
particles
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Soil Moisture
Illustration of the cardinal soil moisture values
saturation percentage, field capacity, and
permanent wilting percentage.
Source Western Fertilizer Handbook
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Drainage
Tile drainage is used to lower the water table.
Tile line
Before Tiling
After Tiling
Source Western Fertilizer Handbook
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An illustration representing the loss of water
vapor through stomata in the transpiration
process.
Source Western Fertilizer Handbook
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Water and Soil Moisture
Relationship between soil texture and water
availability
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Rate at Which Water Moves in the Soil
Soil Types Infiltration rates
(inches/hour)
Sand gt0.8 Sandy silty
soils 0.4 to 0.8 Loams 0.2 to 0.4 Clay
soils 0.04 to 0.2
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Soil Structure and Aggregates
Aggregates Change Water Infiltration!
With Aggregates
Tests Without Aggregates
Graph is Based on Texture
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Water and Soil Moisture
This hemlock was grown in a nursery that had
sandy soil then it was harvested and planted in
heavy clay soil
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Soil
Chemical (Nutrient) Properties
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Soil Chemistry

• Chemical bonding
• pH
• Nutrient Availability
• Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)

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Soil Chemistry
What is Chemistry?

• An Element the simplest kind of matter.
  Elements cannot be broken down into anything
  simpler.
• Elements can exist alone. Nitrogen (N),
  Phosphorus (P), Potassium (K), Oxygen (O), are
  elements and they can be made to exist alone, but
  in nature they seldom do.
• Elements tend to combine with each other. These
  are called compounds. When they combine, its
  called a chemical reaction.
• Chemistry is the study of the how and why
  elements combine, and break apart, through
  chemical reactions.

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Soil Chemistry
Magnets
Un-likes Attract
Likes Repel
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Soil Chemistry
What happens when an anion meets a cation?

• Anions have a negative charge (-)
• Chlorine Cl-
• Cations have a positive charge ()
• Sodium Na
• When they meet, they combine to become a
  molecule, the simplest compound
• NaCl (sodium chloride salt)

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Soil Chemistry pH
What is pH?

• It is simply a measure of the relative amount of
  H ions in the soil solution
• It stands for potential Hydrogen
• In the soil, it is driven by the ionization of
  water H2O H OH-
• We us pH to measure the acidity or the alkalinity
  (basicity) of a solution (a soil solution)

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Soil Chemistry pH
pH
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Soil Chemistry pH
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Soil Chemistry pH
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Soil Chemistry pH
Blueberry 4.5 - 5.0
Azalea 4.5 - 5.5
White Pine 4.5 - 6.0
Tomato 5.5 - 7.5
Black Walnut 6.2 - 7.5
Pin Oak above 7.5 Chlorosis
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Soil Chemistry
The Chemistry of Clay
Clay Particle
Clay particles carry negative charges
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Soil Chemistry
Soil
Magnets
Un-likes Attract
Likes Repel
NO3- Nitrate
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Soil Chemistry Lime
H
CaCO3
Clay Particle
(Lime)
H
-
Ca
H2O CO2
Clay Particle
(water)
(carbon dioxide)
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Soil Chemistry Buffer
What is a Buffer?

• Buffer
• A resistance to a change in the pH. A buffer
  keeps things at status quo, meaning that the pH
  does not fluctuate wildly from high to low, and
  points in between. This is important to soil
  chemical stability.
• Buffering Capacity
• Describes the capacity for a particular soil to
  resist a change in pH. The greater the buffering
  capacity, the more difficult it is to change the
  pH.

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Soil Chemistry Buffer

• High buffering capacity
• High ratio of hydrogen compared to other elements
• Means high Reserve Acidity
• Hard to change pH

• Low buffering capacity
• Low ratio of hydrogen compared to other elements
• Means low Reserve Acidity
• Easy to change pH

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Soil Chemistry Buffer
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Soil Chemistry CEC
The Chemistry of Clay
Cationic Exchange Capacity (CEC)
Clay particles carry negative charges
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Soil Chemistry CEC
The Passengers

• H hydrogen
• K potassium
• Mg magnesium
• Ca calcium

hop on the bus, Gus.
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Soil Chemistry CEC
Passenger Seating H 16 (16 seats) K 6
(6 seats) Mg2 2 (4 seats) Ca2 2 (4 seats)
Clay Particle
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Soil Chemistry CEC
Passenger Seating H 6 (6 seats) K 6 (6
seats) Mg2 3 (6 seats) Ca2 3 (6 seats) Al3
2 (6 seats)
Clay Particle
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Soil Chemistry
Common Soil Cations Anions

• Potassium K K
• Hydrogen H H
• Sodium Na Na
• Calcium Ca Ca
• Magnesium Mg Mg
• Aluminum Al Al

• Nitrate N NO3-
• Chloride Cl Cl-
• Sulphate S SO4--
• Phosphate P H2PO4-

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Soil Chemistry

• Macronutrients
• Nitrogen N
• Phosphorus P
• Potassium K
• Calcium Ca
• Magnesium Mg
• Sulfur S

• Micronutrients
• Iron Fe
• Manganese Mn
• Copper Cu
• Zinc Zn
• Molybdenum Mo
• Boron B
• Chlorine Cl
• Nickel Ni

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Plant Nutrients
Potassium (K) Not a structural element but very
important from the point of view of plant
physiology improves the osmotic pressure or
swelling of the cells and thus regulates the
plants water retention. Enhances resistance to
frost and drought and the absorption capacity of
the roots. Stimulates the storage of
carbohydrates in the reserve cells. Potassium is
therefore extremely important if the plants
generative phase is to proceed satisfactorily. Cal
cium (Ca) Responsible for the structural and
physiological stability of the plant tissue, i.e.
for proper cell division, cell wall formation and
cell extension. Some of the typical consequences
of calcium deficiency are collapse of plant
tissue (e.g. bitter pit of apples, blossom end
rot in tomatoes). Magnesium (Mg) As the central
atom of chlorophyll (leaf green) of particular
importance to the process of photosynthesis.
Supports the assimilation of CO2 and the
synthesis of protein. Helps to stabilize the
cell membranes and activities a large number of
enzymes. Copper (Cu) Participates in the
production of carbohydrates and protein via
photosynthesis. Seventy percent of the copper in
a plant is in the chlorophyll.
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Plant Nutrients
Sulphur (S) As a constituent of amino acids,
sulphur promotes the synthesis of protein.
Sulphur deficiency symptoms are thus similar to
nitrogen deficiency symptoms. All the following
nutrients, i.e. the trace elements, are in all
cases constituents of enzymes and help to
activate enzyme systems. Boron (B) Promotes the
formation of protein which is required in order
to sustain meristem activity (meristem
embryonic tissue). Being part of the cell walls
it promotes the transport of carbohydrate through
the cell membranes. Supports assimilation to
supply the roots. Also important to blossom
formation. Cobalt (Co) Not an essential
nutrient for plants, but has been shown to be
beneficial. Promotes growth. Essential,
however, to the formation of nodules in
legumes. Phosphorus (P) A constituent of
compounds essential for life, particularly in the
conversion of energy. Activates organic
substances. An important constituent of basic
structures such as cell membranes and nucleic
acids (carriers of the genetic code).
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Plant Nutrients
Iron (Fe) Through its part in complex enzyme
reactions iron plays an important role in the
formation of chlorophyll and protein. Manganese
(Mn) Extremely important to photosynthesis, or
more precisely the Hill Reaction, i.e. the
splitting of the water molecule. Plays an
important part in the CO2 assimilation and the
metabolism of N. Molybdenum (Mo) Essential for
the activation of nitrate reductase (the
conversion of nitrate into nitrite). There is a
higher Mo requirement when NO3 is supplied as a
feed than with NH4. Molybdenum is the key to
nitrogen fixing, particularly in
legumes. Nitrogen (N) A constituent of protein
and hence the promoter of growth. Also a
constituent of enzymes which accelerate the
metabolic process and control metabolism through
their catalytic action and of other
physiologically important materials. Directly
involved in photosynthesis as a constituent of
chlorophyll (leaf green). N is absorbed in the
form of NH4 (ammonia), NO3 (nitrate) or CO (NH2)2
(urea). Zinc (Zn) Similar to magnesium and
manganese in its physiological activity.
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Nutrient Relationships
A crops yield is restricted by the lack of one
single element even though there may be
sufficient quantities of all other essential
elements. J. von Liebig
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Soil Chemistry Soil Test
To convert lb/A (pounds per acre) to ppm (parts
per million), divide by 2 100 lb/A 50 ppm
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Why Soil Test?

• Most common question how much fertilizer do I
  need to use?
• Answer how should I know?
• What if your physician told you to take iron
  tabletswithout a blood test?
• The only way you can learn the answer is to have
  the blood tested
• have soil tested

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Soil Testing the only way to determine levels
of available elements present
Proper levels 5.56.5 50-100 250-400
800 150-200 7 pH
P K Ca Mg CEC
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Calculate Amounts of Fertilizer from Soil Tests
If phosphorous rates on a test are 50 pounds per
acre And the rates desired are 100 pounds per
acres you are 50 pounds short Sources of
phosphorous are 0-20-0, 0-46-0 How much
fertilizer needs to be applied to bring this to
desired levels? 0-20-0 or 20 P205 or 5
pounds of 0-20-0 1 pound P2O5 50 divided by
.2 250 pounds of 0-20-0
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Calculate Amounts of Fertilizer from Soil Tests
Potassium levels are at 150 pounds per acre ,
desired rates are at 350 pounds per acres, or
200 pounds short . Sources or potassium are
0-0-50 or 0-0-60 If 200 pounds is needed
using 0-50-0 you should apply ______ 200
divided by .5 400 pounds 200 divided by .6
333.33 pounds The higher the rates the lower
the amounts needed .
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Desired Levels of Micros

• Manganese
• Boron
• Zinc
• Copper
• Iron

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The Living Soil Biological Properties
No-Till for 43 years
Tilled for 5 years
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ORGANIC MATTERS!
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Biological Diversity - Out of Africa
ORGANIC MATTERS!

• The soil ecosystem includes decomposers,
  producers, and consumers.
• Decomposers breakdown organic material freeing
  nutrients and essential organic compounds
• Producers use the nutrients to build organic
  compounds and reproduce.
• Consumers recycle decomposers and producers by
  eating them theyre the lions!

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Soil Organic Matter Management
ORGANIC MATTERS!

• Increase additions of organic residues to soils
• Use varied sources of organic materials
• different CN ratios (the potatoes and meat)
• different types of organic matter a varied
  diet
• Decrease losses of organic matter from soils
• Use cover such as mulches (landscape) or
  top-dressing
• Avoid exposing to air (oxidation)

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Carbon Nitrogen Ratios
C N
Material

• Clover and alfalfa (early) 13 1
• Compost 15 1
• Poultry manure 18 1
• Dairy manure 25 1
• Alfalfa hay 20 1
• Horse manure 50 1
• Wheat, oat, or rye straw 80 1
• Oak leaves 90 1
• Fresh sawdust 400 1
• Newspaper 600 1

A ratio above 301 may cause problems with soil
nitrogen deficiency
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Mulches Verses Amendments

• Mulches are course materials used to cover the
  surface of the soil. This helps cool soil,
  control weeds and add beauty.
• Organic- pine, hardwood, dyed wood, pine
  needles, ect
• Inorganic- stone, ground tires,
• Amendments are substances added to soils to
  improve soil texture, tilth and drainage.
• Organics- compost
• Inorganic- hydite, compressed clay, gravel,

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So..Mulch Matters!
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What is Mulch?

• An organic or inorganic material applied to the
  soil surface, usually during the growing season,
  or over the plant for the dormant season.

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Why Mulch?

• Beautification
• To make surfaces more attractive
• To reduce soil splashing
• Enhance Usage
• To make surface areas more usable for paths,
  play, etc.
• Decrease Maintenance
• Surface Insulation
• To conserve moisture
• To moderate extremes in temperature

• Pest / Disease Management
• To prevent weeds
• To prevent disease
• To prevent insects
• Soil Amendment
• To improve aggregation
• To prevent soil compaction
• To increase water adsorption and retention
• To protect against erosion
• To increase soil fertility

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Mulching
When to Mulch

• In the Spring
• Allow soil to reach optimum temperature before
  mulching (gt 50 - 60?F.).
• Adjust application timing in relation to
  herbicide applications.
• During the Summer
• Monitor mulches for refreshing or replacement
  needs.
• In the Autumn
• On established plants, make a second application
  over the root zone at first indication of frost
  on the ground, to avoid freeze/frost heaving
  during the winter.
• For winter protection of crowns (e.g. roses),
  cover with mulch at first indication of frost on
  the ground, but prior to freezing.

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Using Mulches Correctly
How to Mulch

• Select mulch based on overall landscape needs and
  requirements.
• Be aware of effects on the soil
• Keep mulch depth at 1-3 inches
• Never apply more than 3 inches of new mulch
• Never allow more than 3 inches of mulch to
  accumulate when re-applying mulch.
• Keep mulch away from stems / trunks.
• As much as is practical, cover the entire root
  zone area to achieve maximum benefits in
  enhancing the soil structure.

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Mulch Problems

• Mulch types may impact soil pH
• Composts may be slightly alkaline, may be good
  for acidic soils
• Crushed limestone will raise pH, not good for
  alkaline soils
• Oak leaves, pine needles, pine bark will increase
  acidity, good for alkaline soils
• Mulch types may impact nitrogen availability
• Mulches with CN ratios above 301 may cause
  nitrogen deficiency.
• In general, 1 to 2 lbs. of actual nitrogen per
  1000 sq.ft. should be applied when using such
  mulches.

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Mulch Problems
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Mulch Problems

• Over-Mulching
• Stops free air exchange, suffocating roots.
• Blocks penetration of water / fertilizer
• Causes stem rot
• New roots may grow into mulch elevating the root
  system.
• Creates a rodent haven.

Mulch Volcano Method.
more than 2 feet high!
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Planting Depth and Root Growth
Source Principles and Practice of Planting Trees
and Shrubs
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It is not unusual for the roots to be confined to
the bottom of the root ball when a tree is
planted too deeply in the nursery.
Source Principles and Practice of Planting Trees
and Shrubs
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Circling roots can develop inside containers and
cause problems after planting.
Source Principles and Practice of Planting Trees
and Shrubs
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Light container soil media is needed for good
drainage in container production, but can become
excessively well-drained once installed in the
landscape.
Source Principles and Practice of Planting Trees
and Shrubs
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Correct root pruning procedures can increase the
density of roots in the root ball substantially,
but root loss is still very high.
Source Principles and Practice of Planting Trees
and Shrubs
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If roots have difficulty penetrating compacted
site soils, sloped sides allow roots to continue
to grow vigorously toward the better soils near
the surface rather than being trapped in the
planting hole. roots that do not penetrate the
site soil along the slope will grow more slowly.
Source Principles and Practice of Planting Trees
and Shrubs
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Plant Selection

• Based on desired effect or landscape use what
  is the plant going to be used for?
• What the plant can provide to the design?
• What can the plant do matching plants needs to
  the site

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Plant Selection
Matching plant requirements and/or tolerances to
the site
PERFORMANCE
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Matching plant requirements and/or tolerances to
the site
PERFORMANCE
.
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Planting
Plantem high - watchem die
Plantem low - never grow
Plantem right - sleep at night!
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Planting
Plantem High!
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Tree Root Morphology

• Tap roots are rarely present
• Most (gt 90) roots in upper 3 ft. of soil.
• Of these, most (gt80) of the feeder roots are
  in the upper 6 in. of the soil.
• Horizontal spread is 2.5 3.0 times crown
  spread.
• Most roots (gt60) are outside of drip-line.

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Tree Root Morphology Planting
Exposed Roots these shallow roots are
actually normal
Proper Planting Hole note the sloped sides
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Planting
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Planting
Tree planted 4 years ago burlap was not removed
from ball, and roots failed to penetrate burlap
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Planting
Lens Planting a technique reserved for soil
with extremely heavy clays
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Planting
A stump grinder being used to remove a stump
A stump grinder being used to create planting
hole and radial trenches
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Planting
Radial trenches created by a stump grinder are
filled with a mixture of organic matter and
topsoil
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Planting
Radial trenches created with a backhoe at planting
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Fixing Soil Problems
An Air-Knife, or Air-Spade uses higher
pressure air to remove soil from around the root
system
Roots of a maple tree exposed using an Air-Knife.
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Fixing Soil Problems
Roots exposed using an Air-Knife
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Fixing Soil Problems
Roots exposed using an Air-Knife
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Fixing Soil Problems
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Fixing Soil Problems
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Fixing Soil Problems
1 ¾ hackberry, 18 balls all with 8 13 of
soil over first main order roots
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Fixing Soil Problems
Flat-side symptom
Stem-Girdling Root
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Fixing Soil Problems
High capacity Air-Knife opening trenches
Trench back-filled with organic matter and topsoil
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SOIL Put it All Together

• Physical nature of the soil
• Biological components
• Water
• Soil Chemistry
• Charged elements / molecules soil particles
• Cationic Exchange Capacity
• pH and nutrient availability
• Fertilizer