Motivation

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Motivation
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CATEGORIES OF MOTIVATION THEORIES

• Content (Need) Theories
• Reinforcement Theory
• Process Theories

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Content Theories of Motivation
AlderfersERG Theory
MaslowsNeed Hierarchy
Herzbergs Theory
McClellands Learned Needs
Self- Actualization
Growth
Motivators
Need for Achievement
Esteem
Need for Power
Belongingness
Relatedness
Hygiene Factors
Need for Affiliation
Safety
Existence
Physiological
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Extrinsic and Intrinsic Rewards

• Extrinsic Rewards
• Tangible and visible to others
• Have limitations
• Intrinsic Rewards
• Natural rewards from performing the task

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Potential Means of Fulfillment at work
Maslows Needs Hierarchy
Self Actualization Needs
Challenging projects, opportunities for
innovation and creativity, training Important
projects, recognition, prestigious office
location Good coworkers, peers,
superiors, customers Job security benefits,
like life insurance safety regulations Basic
pay, work space, heat, water, company cafeteria
Esteem Needs
Belongingness Needs
Safety Needs
Physiological Needs
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MASLOWS HIERARCHY Country Differences

• Self-Actualization
• Highest in U.S., Hong Kong, India
• Security
• Highest in Germany, Mexico, Japan
• Social
• Highest in Sweden, Singapore
• Security and Social
• Tied for highest in France, Chile

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ALDERFERS ERG THEORY
Satisfaction- Progression Principle
Frustration- Regression Principle
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HERZBERGS TWO FACTOR THEORY
Motivators
Hygiene Factors
Pay Working Conditions Supervisors Company
Policies Benefits
Achievement Responsibility Work
itself Recognition Growth Achievement
Resolve Dissatisfaction
Promote Satisfaction
Neutral (neither dissatisfied nor satisfied)
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Herzbergs Findings
Motivators
0
10
10
20
20
30
30
40
50
40
50
Achievement
Recognition
Work itself
Responsibility
Advancement
Growth
Company Policy Administration
Supervision
Relationship with supervisor
Work conditions
Pay
Hygiene Factors
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Why Workers Quit

• Limited Advancement Potential - 41
• Lack of Recognition - 25
• Low Salary / Benefits - 15
• (USA Today - 12-16-98)

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McCLELLANDS ACQUIRED NEEDS - Successful Top
Executives

• NEED LEVEL
• Achievement Moderate
• Affiliation Low
• Power High

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McCLELLANDS ACQUIRED NEEDS

• High Achievers Prefer
• Personal Responsibility
• High Feedback
• Moderate Risks
• Those High in Power Motive
• Take High Risks

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MAJOR ELEMENTS OF REINFORCEMENT THEORY

• Stimulus
• Supervisor requests faster work
• Response
• Employee increases or decreases speed or does
  nothing
• Consequence
• Positive Reinforcement, Negative Reinf.
  (Avoidance), Extinction, Punishment

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BEHAVIORAL CONSEQUENCES
To Motivate Employees to Continue Desired
Behaviors
To Motivate Employees to Cease Undesirable
Behaviors
Positive Reinforcement (Good outcome if you
continue) Negative Reinforcement (Bad outcome if
you dont continue)
Extinction (No outcome
whether you continue or not) Punishment
(Bad outcome if you dont stop)
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CONSEQUENCES OF BEHAVIOR
Encourages Maturity
Extinction
Effect on Maturity/ Development
Encourages Immaturity
Increases Behavior
Decreases Behavior
Effect on Behavior
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APPLICATIONS OF REINFORCEMENT THEORY

• Pay for Performance (Merit Pay)
• Gain Sharing
• Employee Stock Ownership Plans (ESOPs)
• Pay for Knowledge
• Organizational Behavior Modification (OB MOD)

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STEPS IN OB MOD

• Before Intervention
• Measure Base Rate
• Identify Stimuli and Consequences
• Intervention
• Set New Goal
• Modify Stimuli and/or Consequences
• Reward Progress toward Goal
• Extinguish or Punish Competing Behaviors

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Some Rewards Lower-Level Managers May Control

• Recognition, such as letters of appreciation
• Invitations to coffee or lunch
• Recommendations for pay increases or promotions
• Time off
• Desirable work assignments

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How to Effectively Shape Behavior with
Reinforcement

• Define desired behavior patterns
  specifically.
• Measure performance accurately.
• Reinforce behavior as quickly as possible.
• Use valued reinforcement.
• Give individual rewards for independent jobs.
• Give team rewards for interdependent jobs.
• Beware of unintended consequences (rewarding the
  wrong thing).

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PROCESS THEORIES

• Goal-Setting Theory
• Equity Theory
• Expectancy Theory

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GOAL-SETTING THEORY

• Assumes goals are motivating

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Criteria for Effective Goals

• Specific
• Measurable
• Attainable, but challenging
• Relevant
• Time-based
• Rewards (for achievement)

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Motivating with Goal-Setting Theory

• Make sure workers truly accept organizational
  goals
• Provide frequent, specific performance-related
  feedback

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Applying Goal-Setting Theory

• Management by Objectives (MBO)

• Setting goals
• Developing action plans
• Reviewing progress
• Appraising overall performance

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Benefits of MBO

• Clarity (people know what to do)
• Commitment (are motivated to do it)
• Coordination (people work toward same things)
• Fairness (objective evaluations)

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Limitations of MBO

• Difficulty choosing relevant, measurable goals
• Rigidity (sometimes need to change goals)
• People skills required
• Time required
• Paperwork
• Frequently sold as a cure-all

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EXPECTANCY THEORY

• Analyzes the parts of the Motivation Process that
  the Leader must attend to (cf., Path-Goal Theory
  of Leadership)
• Has the greatest Breadth of popular motivation
  theories

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EXPECTANCY THEORY
E P (Expectancy) What is the
probability that I can perform at the required
level if I try?
P O (Intrumentality) What is the
probability that my good performance will lead
to desired outcomes?
Valence What value do I place on the
potential outcome?
Effort
Performance
Outcomes
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MULTIPLICATIVE RELATIONSHIP

• If any of the three (Expectancy, Instrumentality,
  or Valence) equal Zero, then there is No
  Motivation.

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Applying Expectancy Theory

• Increase Expectancy
• Enhance employees skills
• Build up employees confidence
• Increase Instrumentality
• Clearly link rewards to performance
• Increase Valences
• Find out what employees want from their jobs

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EQUITY THEORY

• Unique in viewing motivation as affected by
  Comparisons to other people.
• We expect the Ratio of our Outcome to Input to be
  equivalent to that of others.
• We are Motivated to correct inequity.

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Equity Theory Concepts

• Inputs
• employee contributions to the organization
• Outcomes
• rewards employees receive from the organization
• Referents
• comparison others
• Outcome/input (O/I) ratio

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Consequences Of Inequity
Under-reward
Perceived Inequity
Dissatisfaction
Over-reward
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How People React to Perceived Inequity

• Reduce inputs
• Increase outcomes
• Rationalize inputs or outcomes
• Change the referent person
• Leave

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Applying Equity Theory

• Look for and correct major inequities
• Change outcomes given
• Have employees change input
• Make sure processes are fair
• Distributive Justice
• The perceived fairness of how resources and
  rewards are distributed. (Do people get what they
  deserve?)
• Procedural Justice
• The perceived fairness of the process and
  procedures used to make allocation decisions.
  (Are the rules fair? Are they followed? Are
  decisions unbiased? Are they made without
  errors?)

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Possible Sources of Dissatisfaction with
Assembly Line Jobs in an Auto Plant
Lack of Control over the Job
Limited Social Interaction with Others in the
Workplace
Involvement with only a Portion of the Total
Production Cycle
Repetitiveness
Physical Discomfort
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Approaches to Job Design

• Biological
• Make work safe, comfortable
• Perceptual/Motor
• Design equipment, layout, etc. to fit humans
• Mechanistic
• Job Simplification
• Motivational
• Make work more satisfying (Intrinsic motiv.)
• Rotation, Enlargement
• Enrichment - incorporates high-level motivators
  into work.

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Job Characteristics Model
Critical Psychological States
Core Job Characteristics
Outcomes
Work motivation Growth satisfaction General sati
sfaction Work effectiveness
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Job Enrichment Techniques

• Increase Job Demands
• Provide New Learning Experiences
• Assign Responsibility for Clients or Customers
  rather than specialized tasks
• Provide Work Scheduling Freedom
• Provide Feedback, including opportunity to check
  ones own work

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Implementing Job Enrichment

• Training is typically needed
• Short-term performance declines are normal
• Dangers in Job Enrichment
• Some people have low Growth Need Strength
• Employees may expect higher pay

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Comparing Techniques is Difficult

• MBO, Job Design, OB Mod all can increase
• Clarity of Goals
• Feedback
• Rewards

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MAJOR IMPLICATIONS OF MOTIVATION THEORIES

• Set Challenging, but Attainable Goals
• Train and Encourage People
• Provide Valued Extrinsic and Intrinsic Rewards
• Recognize Individual Differences
• Watch for Changes in an Individuals Motives
• Use Mainly Positive Reinforcement
• Distribute Rewards Equitably.