Title: The Dual Revolutions of the 18th and 19th centuries
1The Dual Revolutions of the 18th and 19th
centuries
- The French and Industrial Revolutions and their
aftermath
2The Industrial Revolution
- Economic, Political and Social Change
3Definition
- The process of change from an agrarian and
handicraft based economy to one dominated by
industry and machine manufacture - Arnold Toynbee first used the term to describe
developments in England from 1760 to 1840.
4Mechanization
- During the first half of the 19th century, the
European manufacturing process shifted from
small-scale production by hand at home to
large-scale production by machine in a factory
setting.
5Why England?
- Britannia rules the waves
- Profitable agricultureEnclosure movement
- Coal and iron in Lancashire and Yorkshire
- Money to risk on innovation from profits of the
colonial empire and slavery - The colonies supply raw materials (cotton, sugar)
and also serve as a market for the products of
the factories (English cotton cloth destroys the
domestic textile industry in India.
6Characteristics of the I.R.
- Starts in English cotton textile industry.
- New machines increase production with less human
energy. - The spinning jenny, power loom, etc. are first
powered by water power, then b y the steam
engine, using coal as a fuel. - New organization of work, the FACTORY SYSTEM,
based on the division of labor and the
specialization of function. - Improvements in transportationcanals, roads,
steam locomotive and steamship. - Application of applied science to industry
engineering, chemistry
7New Inventions of the Industrial Revolution
8John Kays Flying Shuttle-1730s mechanization
of weaving
91765 James Hargreaves the Spinning Jenny
- First invention to improve on the spinning wheel
- Could be located in homes of spinners (spinsters)
- Vital to the domestic or putting out system of
cloth production
10Richard ArkwrightPioneer of the Factory System
The Water Frame 1769
111785 Edmund Cartwright - The Power Loom
121765 James Watt the Steam Engine
- Most important invention of the I.R.
- Coal powered-heats water to create steam that
forces piston to turn a wheel. - 1,000 engines in use by 1800
- Applied to transportation technology
13Steam Ship
14An Early Steam Locomotive
15Factory Production
- Concentrates production in oneplace materials,
machines, labor. - Located near sources of power rather than labor
or markets. - Requires a lot of capital investmentfactory,
machines, etc. morethan skilled labor. - Only 10 of English industry in 1850.
16The Factory System
- Rigid schedule.
- 12-14 hour day, six days a week.
- Dangerous conditions.
- Mind-numbing monotony.
17At the Expense of Workers
- The shift meant high quality products at
competitive prices, but often at the expense of
workers. For example, the raw wool and cotton
that fed the British textile mills came from - Lands converted from farming to sheep raising,
leaving farm workers without jobs - The southern plantations of the United States,
which were dependent upon slave labor
18Textile FactoryWorkers in England
1813 2400 looms 150, 000 workers
1833 85, 000 looms 200, 000 workers
1850 224, 000 looms gt1 million workers
19CHILD LABOR IN MINES AND FACTORIES
- In 1788, two thirds of the workers in English
textile mills were children. - They worked up to 14 hours a day in dangerous
and unsanitary conditions. - Poor families could not survive if their children
were not employed. - Factory Act of 1833 limits hours of work and
forbids employment under the age of nine. - Ages 11-18 12 hours a day
- Ages 9-11 8 hours a day
20Child Labor in factories and Mines
21Urban Growth
- Those who could no longer make a living on the
land migrated from the countryside to the cities
to seek work in the factories.
22Population Growth
- At the same time, the population of Europe
continued to grow.
23The Plight of the Cities
- The sheer number of human beings put pressure on
city resources - Housing, water, sewers, food supplies, and
lighting were completely inadequate.
- Slums grew and disease, especially cholera,
ravaged the population. - Crime increased and became a way of life for
those who could make a living in no other way.
24Conditions in the Countryside
- The only successful farmers were those with large
landholdings who could afford agricultural
innovations. - Most peasants
- Didnt have enough land to support themselves
- Were devastated by poor harvests (e.g., the Irish
Potato Famine of 1845-47) - Were forced to move to the cities to find work in
the factories.
25The Role of the Railroads
- The railroads, built during the 1830s and 1840s
- Enabled people to leave the place of their birth
and migrate easily to the cities. - Allowed cheaper and more rapid transport of raw
materials and finished products. - Created an increased demand for iron and steel
and a skilled labor force.
26The Labor Force
- No single description could include all of these
19th century workers - Factory workers
- Urban artisans
- Domestic system craftsmen
- Household servants
- Miners
- Countryside peddlers
- Farm workers
- Railroad workers
- Variations in duties, income, and working
conditions made it difficult for them to unite.
27The Condition of Labor
- All working people, however, faced possible
unemployment, with little or no provision for
security. - In addition, they were subject to various kinds
of discipline - The closing of factory gates to late workers
- Fines for tardiness
- Dismissal for drunkenness
- Public censure for poor quality workmanship
- Beatings for non-submissiveness
28Proletarianization
- Factory workers lose control of the means of
production - Factory owners provide the financial capital to
construct factory and purchase machines and raw
materials - Factory workers can only exchange their labor for
wages
29Upstairs/Downstairs Life
30Industrial Staffordshire
31Worker Resistance
- The Luddites1811-1816 Craftsman destroy the new
textile machines - 1819 Peterloo massacre Troops fire on workers
demonstrating in Manchester - The Chartist Movement 3 million sign the
Peoples Charter, which called for universal
manhood suffrage and the secret ballot - Trade unions were illegal
32Family Structures Changed
- With the decline of the domestic system and the
rise of the factory system, family life changed. - At first, the entire family, including the
children, worked in the factory, just as they had
at home. - Later, family life became fragmented (the father
worked in the factory, the mother handled
domestic chores, the children went to school).
33Family as a Unit of Consumption
- In short, the European family changed from being
a unit of production and consumption to being a
unit of consumption alone.
34Gender-Determined Roles
- That transformation prepared the way for
gender-determined roles. - Women came to be associated with domestic duties,
such as housekeeping, food preparation, child
rearing and nurturing, and household management. - The man came to be associated almost exclusively
with breadwinning.
35Political and social changes
- Decline in the importance of the aristocracy.
- Rise in power of the Bourgeoisie
- Liberalism becomes the dominant ideology of the
middle classes - Working class organizes in labor unions and
socialist parties based on the ideas of Karl Marx
(1848 The Communist Manifesto)
36Karl Marx and Friedrich EngelsThe Communist
Manifesto 1848
- History has a directionit moves along through
necessary stages - History is moved along by changes in the economic
life of each societythe mode of production and
exchange - History is moved along by class strugglea
struggle between dominant and the subordinate
social classes - In the industrial era, the struggle is between
the bourgeoisie (the owners of the means of
production) and the proletariat (workers who only
own their own labor) - The Communist Revolution will destroy capitalism
and the class system.
37The French Revolution
38The Revolutionary Ideas
- -Ideological Foundation for Political Liberalism
and Democracy
39 Liberty
- The notion of individual human rights
- A new type of government in which the people are
sovereign - The importance of a representative assembly
- The importance of a written constitution
- The notion of self-determination
- Freedom to accumulate property
40 Equality
- Equality of rights and civil liberties
- Equality before the law
- No special privileges for the rich
- Equality of opportunity
- Careers Open to Talent
- Inherent tension between liberty and equality
41 The Atlantic Revolution
- French Revolution was a part of a whole series of
revolutions which took place during the late 18th
century - --Political agitation in England, Ireland,
Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, Italy, Germany,
Hungary, Poland and the North and South American
colonies - One big movement of revolutionary agitation that
continues well into the 19th c.
42 The American Revolution
- 1760sBritish Parliament taxes the 13 North
American colonies to pay for the Seven Years war
with France - 1774 Continental Congress No taxation without
representation - 1775 Battles at Lexi9ngton and Concord
- July 4, 1776 Declaration of Independence All
Men are Created Equal. Influenced by ideas of
John Locke and the Enlightenment. - American victory made possible by military
support from France and the Netherlands. - 1783 Peace of Paris
- The significance of the American constitution
(1787) - The influence of the American Revolution on
revolutions throughout the world
43The Declaration of Independence July 4, 1776
- When in the Course of human events it becomes
necessary for one people to dissolve the
political bands which have connected them with
another and to assume among the powers of the
earth, the separate and equal station to which
the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle
them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind
requires that they should declare the causes
which impel them to the separation. - We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all
men are created equal, that they are endowed by
their Creator with certain unalienable Rights,
that among these are Life, Liberty and the
pursuit of Happiness. That to secure these
rights, Governments are instituted among Men,
deriving their just powers from the consent of
the governed, That whenever any Form of
Government becomes destructive of these ends, it
is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish
it, and to institute new Government, laying its
foundation on such principles and organizing its
powers in such form, as to them shall seem most
likely to effect their Safety and Happiness.
Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments
long established should not be changed for light
and transient causes and accordingly all
experience hath shewn that mankind are more
disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable
than to right themselves by abolishing the forms
to which they are accustomed. But when a long
train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing
invariably the same Object evinces a design to
reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their
right, it is their duty, to throw off such
Government, and to provide new Guards for their
future security. Such has been the patient
sufferance of these Colonies and such is now the
necessity which constrains them to alter their
former Systems of Government. The history of the
present King of Great Britain is a history of
repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in
direct object the establishment of an absolute
Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let
Facts be submitted to a candid world.
44The Bill of Rights- first 10 amendments to the
U.S. Constitution, ratified on December 15, 1791
- Amendment I Congress shall make no law
respecting an establishment of religion, or
prohibiting the free exercise thereof or
abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press
or the right of the people peaceably to assemble,
and to petition the government for a redress of
grievances. - Amendment II A well regulated militia, being
necessary to the security of a free state, the
right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall
not be infringed. - Amendment III No soldier shall, in time of peace
be quartered in any house, without the consent of
the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to
be prescribed by law. - Amendment IV The right of the people to be
secure in their persons, houses, papers, and
effects, against unreasonable searches and
seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants
shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported
by oath or affirmation, and particularly
describing the place to be searched, and the
persons or things to be seized. - Amendment V No person shall be held to answer
for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime,
unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand
jury, except in cases arising in the land or
naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual
service in time of war or public danger nor
shall any person be subject for the same offense
to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb nor
shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a
witness against himself, nor be deprived of life,
liberty, or property, without due process of law
nor shall private property be taken for public
use, without just compensation. - Amendment VI In all criminal prosecutions, the
accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and
public trial, by an impartial jury of the state
and district wherein the crime shall have been
committed, which district shall have been
previously ascertained by law, and to be informed
of the nature and cause of the accusation to be
confronted with the witnesses against him to
have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses
in his favor, and to have the assistance of
counsel for his defense. - Amendment VII In suits at common law, where the
value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars,
the right of trial by jury shall be preserved,
and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise
reexamined in any court of the United States,
than according to the rules of the common law. - Amendment VIII Excessive bail shall not be
required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel
and unusual punishments inflicted. - Amendment IX The enumeration in the
Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be
construed to deny or disparage others retained by
the people. - Amendment X The powers not delegated to the
United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited
by it to the states, are reserved to the states
respectively, or to the people.
45 Revolutions in Mexico and Central and South
America
- Led by wealthy Creole class
- Goal Independence from Spanish and Portuguese
rule - Simon Bolivar, the father of Latin American
independence led revolts in Columbia, Venezuela,
Ecuador and Peru - Bolivar cooperated with Jose de San Martin and
Bernardo OHiggins in successful revolts in
Argentina and Chile - Bolivars goal a United Sates of South America
- By 1825 Spanish rule ended in South America
- 1822 Independence of Brazil under Emperor Pedro I
- 1821 End of Spanish rule in Mexico and Central
America - Continued dominance of the white Creole elites
46Background of Haitian Revolution
- Treaty of Ryswick (1697) Spain cedes Western
third of Hispaniola to France - From 1697 to 1789, Saint Domingue becomes the
richest colony in the world based on slave
produced sugar, coffee indigo dye, cotton,
tobacco and exotic spices - The plantation system on S.D. was the most brutal
the world had ever seen.
471791 The structure of Saint Domingue society
- 20,000 whites (Planters and Petit Blancs)
- 50,000 free people of color (affranchis)
- 500,000 African slaves (most born in Africa)
- 10,000 to 20,000 Maroons (runaway slaves) living
in the mountains.
48Impact of American and French Revolutions on
Saint Domingue
- 500 gens de couleur (affranchis) serve in French
army and participate in the American Revolution.
Bring revolutionary ideas back to S.D. - The planters want an independent S.D. that they
can control without interference from Paris. - The petit blancs are the only group loyal to
France hostile to the free persons of color and
want to retain slavery. - The affranchis want a free Saint Dominguewith
slavery- and equal rights with the whites. - The slaves want only one thingfreedom!
49The Haitian Revolution Begins
- August 21, 1791 revolt of the slaves on the
northern plain. - More than a thousand planters and their families
killed - Whites and affranchis unite to put down the
rebellion
50Francois-DominiqueToussaint (LOuverture)
1744-1803
- Former slave, 47 years old, joins rebels as a
medical officer - Rises to become a general and the leader of the
revolution - To get rid of French he allies with the English
and Spanish
51Toussaint LOuverture
- In 1793, the National Assembly in France
abolishes slavery. - Sonthanax, the French representative in S.D.
issues proclamation ending slavery. - In 1794, Toussaint joins the French side as . a
brigadier general - He defeats the Spanish and English and conquers
the whole island of Hispaniola by 1801 - July 26, 1801 Toussaints Constitution
52Napoleon Bonaparte
- Napoleon wants to take power back from the
gilded African - 1802 General Laclerc lands at Cap Francois
- Toussaint betrayed, arrested and sent to
Francedies in prison in April 1803.
53The Republic of Haiti
- Henri Christophe and Jean Jacques Dessalines
continue war. - French surrender in November 1803.
- Napoleon, disgusted at the cost of colonial wars,
sells Louisiana to the U.S. - January 1, 1804 Dessalines proclaims the
independence of Haiti
54The problems of independence
- A devastated economy Former slaves refuse to
return to plantation labor. Do not produce for
export. - International boycott against trade with Haiti
- Haitian independence recognized by France in
1825 England in 1833 the United States in
1862!!! - The affranchis form a Haitian ruling class.
- Between 1843 -1915, a succession of 20 rulers 16
overthrown by revolution or assassination. - United States military occupation of Haiti
(1915-1934)
55 The French Revolution
- More fundamental and profound consequences than
the American Revolution and the revolutions in
Latin America - France most powerful and populous state in
Europe - Massive social revolution
- Worldwide impact
- Becomes model for future revolutions
56How Should We Look at the French Revolution?
- Series of revolutions which became more radical
as leadership cascaded down through French
society.
57Background to the French Revolution
- The ideas of the Enlightenment Locke, Voltaire,
Diderot, Montesquieu, Rousseau - Primary idea is popular sovereignty. Government
should be based on the will of the people. - The burdens on the French peasantry tithes to
the church taxes to the State and to wealthy
landlords the corveeunpaid labor services the
salt monopoly - Grievances of the bourgeoisie
- Grievances of the urban poor
58 The Events of the French Revolution
- Watch for the different revolutions within the
Revolution!
59The OriginsThe financial crisis of Louis XVIs
government
- Began as a revolt of the aristocracy
- Attempt to capitalize on the financial woes of
the monarchy - Only solution tax reform and a direct tax on
all property - Aristocracy refused and forces the issue
60 The Estates-General
- An old feudal assembly that had not met since
1614 - Three Estates Clergy, Nobility, All Others
- 1788 the cahiers des doleances
- The miscalculation and lack of social awareness
of the aristocracy
61 The Third Estate
- Who were they?
- Third Estate was dominated by the middle class
- Blending of aristocratic and bourgeois classes by
1789 - Middle class Big Winners
- Revolutionary goals of the middle class
62 An Agenda of Classical Liberalism
- Representative government did not mean democracy
or mob rule - Estates-General became the National Assembly in
June of 1789 with the power to frame a
constitution - --Tennis Court Oath
63 Revolutionaries in the Streets
- Who were they?
- Sans-culottes (without knee britches)
- Picked up the ideas and slogans of the Revolution
from the more educated leadership of lawyers and
journalists
64What were the Motivations of these
Revolutionaries?
- Poverty and Hunger
- Low wages and fear of unemployment
- Heightened expectations and the exposure to a
political perspective - -- Cahiers
- Strong dislike for and distrust of the wealthy
- The role of conspiracy
65 The Storming the Bastille July 14, 1789
- Reasons for the attack on the Bastille on the
morning of July 14 - The stubbornness of the governor of the fortress
- Celebrations on the night of July 14th
- Sparks tremendous popular revolution all over
France
66 The Great Fear
- Independent revolutionary agitation in the
countryside - Rumors of Royalist troops becoming wandering
vandals - Fear breeds fear and peasants start marching
- Within 3 weeks of July 14, the countryside of
France had been completely changed - Abolition of the Nobility
67The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
August 26, 1789
- The representatives of the French people,
organized as a National Assembly, believing that
the ignorance, neglect, or contempt of the rights
of man are the sole cause of public calamities
and of the corruption of governments, have
determined to set forth in a solemn declaration
the natural, unalienable, and sacred rights of
man, in order that this declaration, being
constantly before all the members of the Social
body, shall remind them continually of their
rights and duties in order that the acts of the
legislative power, as well as those of the
executive power, may be compared at any moment
with the objects and purposes of all political
institutions and may thus be more respected, and,
lastly, in order that the grievances of the
citizens, based hereafter upon simple and
incontestable principles, shall tend to the
maintenance of the constitution and redound to
the happiness of all. Therefore the National
Assembly recognizes and proclaims, in the
presence and under the auspices of the Supreme
Being, the following rights of man and of the
citizenArticles1. Men are born and remain free
and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be
founded only upon the general good.2. The aim of
all political association is the preservation of
the natural and imprescriptible rights of man.
These rights are liberty, property, security, and
resistance to oppression.3. The principle of all
sovereignty resides essentially in the nation. No
body nor individual may exercise any authority
which does not proceed directly from the
nation.4. Liberty consists in the freedom to do
everything which injures no one else hence the
exercise of the natural rights of each man has no
limits except those which assure to the other
members of the society the enjoyment of the same
rights. These limits can only be determined by
law.5. Law can only prohibit such actions as are
hurtful to society. Nothing may be prevented
which is not forbidden by law, and no one may be
forced to do anything not provided for by law.6.Â
Law is the expression of the general will. Every
citizen has a right to participate personally, or
through his representative, in its foundation. It
must be the same for all, whether it protects or
punishes. All citizens, being equal in the eyes
of the law, are equally eligible to all dignities
and to all public positions and occupations,
according to their abilities, and without
distinction except that of their virtues and
talents.7. No person shall be accused, arrested,
or imprisoned except in the cases and according
to the forms prescribed by law. Any one
soliciting, transmitting, executing, or causing
to be executed, any arbitrary order, shall be
punished. But any citizen summoned or arrested in
virtue of the law shall submit without delay, as
resistance constitutes an offense.8. The law
shall provide for such punishments only as are
strictly and obviously necessary, and no one
shall suffer punishment except it be legally
inflicted in virtue of a law passed and
promulgated before the commission of the
offense.9. As all persons are held innocent
until they shall have been declared guilty, if
arrest shall be deemed indispensable, all
harshness not essential to the securing of the
prisoner's person shall be severely repressed by
law.10. No one shall be disquieted on account of
his opinions, including his religious views,
provided their manifestation does not disturb the
public order established by law.11. The free
communication of ideas and opinions is one of the
most precious of the rights of man. Every citizen
may, accordingly, speak, write, and print with
freedom, but shall be responsible for such abuses
of this freedom as shall be defined by law.12.Â
The security of the rights of man and of the
citizen requires public military forces. These
forces are, therefore, established for the good
of all and not for the personal advantage of
those to whom they shall be intrusted.13. A
common contribution is essential for the
maintenance of the public forces and for the cost
of administration. This should be equitably
distributed among all the citizens in proportion
to their means.14. All the citizens have a right
to decide, either personally or by their
representatives, as to the necessity of the
public contribution to grant this freely to
know to what uses it is put and to fix the
proportion, the mode of assessment and of
collection and the duration of the taxes.15.Â
Society has the right to require of every public
agent an account of his administration.16. A
society in which the observance of the law is not
assured, nor the separation of powers defined,
has no constitution at all.17. Since property is
an inviolable and sacred right, no one shall be
deprived thereof except where public necessity,
legally determined, shall clearly demand it, and
then only on condition that the owner shall have
been previously and equitably indemnified.
68Women in the Age of Revolution
- Olympe de Gouges
- 1791 Declaration of the Rights of Women and the
Female Citizen - Mary Wollstonecraft
- 1792 A Vindication of the Rights of Women
- Olympe de Gouges
- 1791 Declaration of the Rights of Women and the
Female Citizen - Mary Wollstonecraft
- 1792 A Vindication of the Rights e.doc
69Women take the Lead!
- Mounting unemployment and hunger in Paris in the
fall of 1789 - October Days The march to Versailles
- -- The point is that we want bread!
- The Royal Family returns to Paris on October 6,
1789
70 The Consolidation of the Liberal Revolution
- Events from October, 1789 through September, 1791
- Abolition of the French nobility as a legal order
- Constitutional Monarchy established
- Economic centralization
- Nationalization of the Church
- --Stage set for subsequent civil war
71 Popular Political Mobilization
- Revolutionary Talk
- --More than 500 new newspapers
- --Oath of Loyalty
- -- Liberte, Equalite, Fraternite!
- Revolutionary Symbols
- Revolutionary Clubs
- --The Jacobins
- Revolutionary Leaders
72 Growing Radicalism
- Reasons
- --Snowball Effect
- --Unsatisfied Expectations
- --Outbreak of War
- Results
- --Increasing Violence
- --Change in Political Leadership
73 Robespierres Reign of Terror
- The Committee of Public Safety
- The Concept of Total War
- Maximum price ceilings on certain goods
- Nationalization of Small Workshops
74 The Reign of Terror (cont)
- Execution of 40,000 Enemies of the Nation
- Stress on radical definition of equality
- Wanted a legal maximum on personal wealth
- Wanted a regulation of commercial profits
- End of Robespierres dictatorship on July 28, 1794
75 The Directory and Napoleon Bonaparte
- The Directory (1794-1799)
- Napoleons Rise to Power
- The Napoleonic Code
- Establishment of the Bank of France
- Reconciliation with the Catholic Church
- --Concordat of 1801
- Heavy Censorship
- Napoleons Art of War
- The Napoleonic Code
76 Legacies of the French Revolution
- A revolutionary model
- A mass political consciousness
- Inspires nationalist movementsunification of
Italy (1867) and Germany (1871 - Conflict within the Liberal Tradition
Libertarianism vs. Egalitarianism