IMEC Presentation

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Concise Writing Research Planning
Ciara O Sullivan Second Lecture 23.11.2004
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Overview of class

• Guide to writing concisely
• syntax
• tutorial
• Guidelines to writing abstracts
• Guidelines to planning research
• identification of tasks
• task timing and resources
• GANTT and PERT charts
• MS Project
• contingency planning

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Common syntax errors
(syntax rules for sentence building)

• Word choice
• Delete uninformative words and avoid redundancy
• Use one word to replace a phrase
• Avoid grandiloquence or grandiose phrasing
• Avoid clichés and euphemisms
• Use synonyms
• Sentence structure
• Agreement of subject and verb
• Pronoun reference
• Active and passive voice
• Nouns from verbs
• American and British styles
• Paragraph structure

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1. Word choice
A paper will be more readable if words are used
economically. Writing concisely may be contrary
to common practice in some countries where
authors are paid by the number of words
published! Remember, your goal is to facilitate
communication, which is accomplished through
concise and lucid writing in a well-organized
manner.
a. Delete uninformative words and avoid
redundancy Examples brief in duration
sufficient in number The wound was of a
serious nature The rock is red in color It
was precooled before use We repeated the
experiment again and again
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1. Word choice
past history mix together
original source advance planning
globular in shape more preferable than
seem to appear for a period of two
days the work will be completed in the
not-too-distant future The reaction rate
was examined and found to vary considerably
The results would seem to indicate the
possibility that impurities might be present
As far as my own experiments are concerned,
they show It has been found that
It is interesting to note that (del)
Needless to say, (del).
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b. Use one word to replace a phrase
Many popular expressions can be expressed as a
single word, or are better omitted altogether.
For example,
At this point of time
Now
The reason was because
Because
In view of the fact that
Because
Was observed to be
Was
In the near future
Soon
In most cases
Mostly
It would appear that
Delete
Is suggestive of
Suggests
As to whether
Whether
In the vicinity of
Near
It was evident that
Evidently
In the event that
If (should)
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c. Avoid grandiloquence or grandiose phrasing
The word grandiloquence is itself grandiose. It
implies a pompous style that impresses no one and
provokes ridicule. Conciseness and clarity
should apply to scientific writing. Compare the
following sentences Computations were conducted
on the data - The data were calculated. It may
seem reasonable to suggest that the necrotic
effect may possibly due to toxins - Necrosis may
be caused by toxins. In studies pertaining to
identification of phenolic derivatives, drying of
the paper gives less satisfactory visualization -
Phenolic derivatives are easier to see if the
paper is left wet. A method, which was found to
be expedient and not very difficult to accomplish
and which possessed a high degree of accuracy on
the results, was devised whereby . - An easy,
accurate way to
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d. Avoid clichés and euphemisms
cliché - fr printing plate negative
phototype  banalité  chenqiang
landiao euphemism - eu ( well), phem ( to
speak) weiwan de shuofa e.g., eugenics, eulogy,
euphony (pleasing sound), euthanasia
(an-le-si) Clichés and euphemisms are rarely
helpful and often cryptic (secret, with a hidden
meaning or a meaning not easily seen). all in
all - (delete) if and when if Some common
euphemisms are simply awkward For ex., The
patient expired The patient passed away The
patient succumbed The patient breathed his
last The patient has gone to his rest.
These can be replaced by  The patient died 
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d. Avoid clichés and euphemisms
The following terms are usually better omitted
or rephrased a majority of, an
order of magnitude faster, are of the
same opinion, as a consequence of,
as a matter of fact, as seen from our
study it is evident that, based on the
fact that, first of all, for the
reason that, has the capacity of,
in a satisfactory manner, it has long
been known that, it is clear that much
additional work will be required before a
complete understanding, owing to the fact
that, the question as to whether,
there is reason to believe.
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e. Use of synonyms
A synonym is a word that has the same or nearly
the same meaning as another word. The principal
reason to employ synonyms is to avoid monotony
from using the same term repeatedly. For
ex., The subject demonstrated a marked
sensitivity to the allergen. After receiving the
medication, she showed marked improvement. This
is a marked medical achievement. Improved
version The subject demonstrated a marked
sensitivity to the allergen. After receiving the
medication, she showed significant improvement.
This is an extraordinary medical
achievement. Synonyms for common words can be
found in a thesaurus, a dictionary, and some word
processing programs. Understanding the nuances of
synonyms can be difficult for non-native-anglophon
e people. The best way to improve your grasp is
to read English-language authors and practice
your own writing.
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2. Sentence structure

• 1. Agreement of subject and verb
• The number of the verb must agree with the number
  of the subject. e.g.
• From this work has come improved antibiotic
  drugs.

From this work have come improved
antibiotic drugs.
An evaluation of the experimental results, as
well as the clinical findings, are described.
An evaluation of the experimental results, as
well as the clinical findings, is described.
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2. Sentence structure
2. Recognising irregular plurals. (for ex., a
common mistake is to use a singular verb with
data, formulae, and radii) 3. When singular and
plural subjects are joined by either or and
neither nor, the verb must agree with the
nearest subject. For ex., - Either the samples
or the apparatus were contaminated. - Either the
samples or the apparatus was contaminated.
(correct) Note - Either and neither always take
a singular verb. For ex., Either of the
explanations is acceptable Neither of the
samples is large.
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b. Pronoun reference
An antecedent is the word, phrase, or clause to
which a pronoun refers. A sentence may be
confusing if the pronoun and its antecedent are
not clearly identifiable. A missing antecedent
cannot be assumed to be  obvious from the
context , and an ambiguous reference should
always be corrected. e.g., The monkey was
operated on by the surgeon when he was 6 weeks
old. (who was 6 weeks old?)
The ambiguity is removed by positioning the
pronoun closer to its antecedent The monkey,
when he was 6 weeks old, was operated on by.
Better still is to move the relative clause to
the beginning, where it will not separate the
subject from the principal verb When he was
6 weeks old, the monkey was operated on by ..
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c. Active and passive voice
English verbs have two voices active and
passive. In the active voice, the subject
performs the action, while in the passive voice
the subject receives the action. As
fashions change with time, so does the style of
scientific writing. Prior to 1900, scientists
routinely used the active voice and personal
pronouns in their reports, making such statements
as,  I made the following experiment ,  I
cannot say , I would point out that  .
Then the passive voice gradually gained
popularity, perhaps from the belief that its
impersonal style denoted greater professionalism.
However, the consistent overuse and misuse of the
passive voice devitalized scientific writing.
Today, the trend is once again turned toward
clarity of expression and the freer, more concise
writing that results from habitual use of the
active voice. Style experts now prefer the active
voice, which is more direct, sounds more natural
and usually save words.
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Comparison
It was suggested by Dr. Smith that the test be
postponed. Dr. Smith suggested postponing the
test. A detailed description of the apparatus is
presented in this report. This report presents a
detailed description of the apparatus. This is
not to say that you must entirely avoid using the
passive voice, which can be quite effective if
used sparingly. By placing the receiver of the
action as the subject of the sentence, it
receives subtle emphasis. e.g., The
relationship F ma was discovered by
Newton. Newton discovered the relationship F
ma. The first version would be appropriate in a
text on the history of physics, whereas the
second could be used in a biography of Sir Isaac
Newton.
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d. Nouns from verbs
Verbs can express action. For many action verbs
there are nouns of similar derivation that
expresses the result of the action. For
ex., examine-examination and perform-performance.
Using the noun form expresses the action
indirectly. Your writing will be more vigorous if
such nouns are replaced by the verb forms. Ex.,
By analysis of the data By analyzing the
data An evaluation of the data was done The data
were evaluated The installation of the new
equipment has been carried out The new equipment
has been installed.
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d. Nouns from verbs

• Exercise Rewrite the following sentenses using
  the active voice and trying to eliminate
  redundant words.
• His performance of the test was adequate.
• We made at least two analyses on each sample.
• Evaporation of alcohol from the mixture takes
  place rapidly.
• Clarity in writing is my intention.

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e. American and British styles
British writing is different from American
writing in certain forms of punctuation and
spelling. Whatever style is used will not really
affect the readers understanding of the text,
but you should be consistent and employ the same
style throughout a work. Spelling American -
British connection - connexion inflection -
inflexion defense - defence practice -
practice (n.) practise (v.) center -
centre liter - litre meter - metre (unit of
measure) meter (instrument) behavior -
behaviour color - colour distill -
distil catalog - catalogue analyze -
analyse catalyze - catalyse judgment -
judgement aging - ageing acknowledgment -
acknowledgement
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e. American and British styles
The digraphs ae and oe in words of Latin or
Greek derivation are retained in British
style anesthesia - anaesthesia cesium -
caesium diarrhea - diarrhoea hematite -
haematite leukemia - leukaemia fetus -
ftus Punctuation American - comma after e.g.
and i.e. none in British
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3. Paragraph structure

• In its simplest form, a lucid paragraph contains
  a topic sentense and clearly related supporting
  sentenses. The topic sentence comprises the main
  point or idea of the paragraph, while supporting
  sentences provide detail or ancillary
  information. The following are basic guidelines
  for paragraph design.
• Cover only one main point or idea in each
  paragraph.
• Each sentence should establish or support the
  topic of the paragraph.

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3. Paragraph structure
All of the patient data were kept in files. The
absence of even one clerk caused delays in the
monthly reporting. Finally, management decided to
interview some system analysts. (The connection
between the three sentences is not clear.
Although the meaning can be inferred, it is
better to state it outright).
All of the patient data were kept in paper files,
which took much staff time to maintain. The
absence of even one clerk would delay the monthly
patient reports. Management wanted to computerize
record-keeping, which would take less time and be
more reliable, and finally decided to interview
some systems analysts to develop the new system.
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3. Paragraph structure
4. Keep a consistent point of view That is,
maintain the same grammatical voice (active or
passive) throughout the paragraph. 5. Use
parallel construction to male the paragraph
easier to understand. In an attempt to avoid
monotony, some writers vary the sentence
construction and thereby hinder conprehension.
Ex., A 10 mg dose produces no effect, a 20 mg
dose produces a small effect, but patients show a
noticeable effect from a 30 mg dose. A 10 mg
dose produces no effect, a 20 mg dose produces a
small effect, but patients show a noticeable
effect from a 30 mg dose.
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Golden rules

• Abstract should be 1/2 to 3/4 page long
• Abstract should be LAST thing written
• Summary of the key findings of YOUR work
• Should encourage the reader to read on
• Any info included in abstract MUST be included in
  body of work

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Guidelines to writing abstracts
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Why is your scientific contribution important?
The construction of the science is based on the
communication of the research results.
Previous works are the basis for yours, when you
enter in the loop (intake, production, output and
feedback) you become a consumer and a producer
and so on till the end of
Literature
Research
Production
your research career. Within the circle it is
relevant to communicate your results as brief and
clear as possible.
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Preliminary research
Question
yes
answer
no
New research
conclusions
Project design
results
Lab work
Dissemination retrieval
manuscript
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COMMUNICATE!!!!!
Be aware of the contribution of your research to
the Scientific Community and try to share it with
your colleagues How?
Communicating your results (written, oral,
others)
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When you consider you have finished an
homogeneous part, be sure before finishing
labwork.
Arrange and organize your notes, references or
any other material, display and classify it.
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How to start to write a manuscript?
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Organize your information
graphs
references
tables
figures
photos
schemes
notes
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Structure your information in separate blocks
introduction
Notes, commentaries, references, objectives
Samples, individuals, sampling, analytical and
statistical methods, ...
material methods
Answers to the objetives support-ed by numerical,
graphical or any other forms
results
Analysis of the results, comparison with other
authors
discussion
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Try to integrate your puzzle of information
And structure it!
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Structure of a scientific paper

• Title
• Authors names and
• affiliation
• Abstract, keywords
• Introduction
• Material and methods

• Results
• Discussion
• Conclusions
• Acknowledgements
• References
• Annexes

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Keywords
Keywords should not be empty words or express
generalities. Remember that it will be the
keyword that will facilitate people to find the
paper and cite it! (which is what we want, of
course!) So, for example in the article we use to
use a keyword mayonnaise would be incorrect but
home-made mayonnaise makes it more specific.
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Abstract
The abstract, summary or synopsis is, like the
title and keywords, one element within the
manuscript of considerable relevant importance.
The retrieval of the paper and its reading
depend greatly on it.
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Abstract
The main feature of an abstract is its size. In
very few words (200-300) the abstract should
inform about the main aspects of the manuscript
and respond to why, what, how and the results and
their interpretation.
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Characteristics of an abstract
Short sentences, but not telegraphed No
references, tables or figures No acronyms,
abbreviations.. No excessive details
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Abstract

• Basic justification for conducting the study
  (background info)
• Research objectives
• Basic Methods Used
• Specific Results of YOUR work
• Major Conclusions

Any info included in the abstract should be
included in the body of the article
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Abstract

• Should NOT include details of experiment
• Should NOT include generalities and results of
  previous works
• Does not have to contain everything that is
  included in the paper

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Ask yourself

• Does my abstract
• Clearly state the topic/goal
• Clearly state the general approach/method
• Clearly state the main outcome and consequences
• Contain trivial information or results which are
  entirely predictable (remove them!)

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Abstract Exercise

• Identify points to include in abstract
• Background
• Importance of results whats new
• Methods used
• Specific new results obtained
• Major conclusions
• In groups of 4 make attempt to draft abstract

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Abstract Exercise

• Background
• Autosterilisation (i.e. Elimination of
  salmonella) of mayonnaise by various parameters
• Whats new about the results?
• Influence of various oils and types of vinegars
  on antimicrobial properties
• Methods used
• Mayonnaise prepared with different vinegars and
  oils as acidulants acetic acid used as a
  control
• Samples inoculated with salmonella
• pH and acetic acid measured

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Abstract Exercise

• Results
• At 20oC best autosterilisation with white wine
  vinegar mayo
• Autosterilisation, but at a slower rate when
  white wine vinegar contained garlic, tarragon,
  cider or spirit vinegar
• With lowered acetic acid content less salmonella
  killed
• Results much better at 20oC than 4oC
• At 20oC grapeseed, soya, olive (w/ basil or
  garlic) rapeseed, groundnut, hazelnut,
  sunflower blended olive oil
• Major conclusions
• The type of vinegar used for acidulation has a
  strong effect on autosterilisation properties due
  to acetic acid content
• Oils of different origins have varying effects on
  killing of salmonella and garlic/basil observed
  to enhance this effect

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Abstract Exercise
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Abstract Homework Exercise

• Modelling the pH of mayonnaise by the ratio of
  egg to vinegar
• Auto-oxidate effect of Glucose Oxidase and
  Catalase in Mayonnaises of Different oxidative
  susceptibility
• Product Trials
• Mathematical Modelling
• 3. Detection of Salmonella in food by a 3
  days PCR based method
• 4. Neural Network Modelling of the fate of
  Salomonella in home made mayonnaise prepared with
  citric acid

For preparation in discussion in small group
tutorials
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Research Planning
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Research Planning

• Research planning is an essential part of and
  research project
• Must identify
• Tasks to be carried out
• Time required to carry them out
• Resources required to carry them out
• Expected results and contigency planning
• Deliverables and milestones

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SMART Research Planning

• GOAL (also known as SCOPE) is to define what
  overall the project will accomplish and what will
  be different as a result
• OBJECTIVE what the project is trying to achieve
  should be SMART objectives, Specific Measurable
  Attainable Realistic Time bound objectives

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• Milestones deliverables
• Milestone a point in time representing a key or
  intermediate event that marks progress
• Deliverable a tangible item contributing to the
  success of the project
• NOT milestone completion of phase 1 interim
  progress report deliverable a greater
  understanding of the processes .

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SMART Research Planning
Ask two key questions 1. What will the project
do and how will we know if its going according
to plan? 2. What will the project deliver and
how will we know if its a success?
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Can Ph.D. students plan research ?

• YES! Together with supervisor who has more global
  view of project
• Look at the grant application of the project that
  you are working on
• You will see Targets, milestones,
  deliverables..Year 1, Year 2 and Year 3
• Your supervisor (or the project PI) has taken a
  horizon view of where you should be after 3 years
• Usually this is an aspiration or Best Guess

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Important for future career!
To get the grant, a PI has had to pay at least
lip-service to ideas of Project Planning and
Management but they have not had any formal
training and therefore they depend on their
years of experience of getting PhDs through
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Thought processes.You Supervisor

• 90 time
• 100 Motivation
• Little idea of whats required
• Its up to the supervisor to come up with the
  ideas, not me
• If this project fails, Ill have to write up a
  lousy Masters

• 10 time
• Changeable motivation
• Good idea of whats required (?)
• Well, I have 4 other students
• Ill have to keep the funders sweet

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Some typical PhD scenarios

• Learn a lot in Year 1 and may even have no data
  that will end up in Ph.D
• Get dispirited in Year 1 as nothing works
• Cul-de-sacs
• Have a Purple patch in Year 2 when you cash in
  and get loads of data
• Disagree with supervisor over when you have
  enough data
• Take forever writing up

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Good Habits in Project Management

• Agree overall staged research outcomes for the
  year with supervisor
• Targets should be challenging but within reach
• By Christmas, I should have that, then by.
• Detailed plans for next 3 months work
• Allow contingency
• Broad strokes for 6, 9 and 12 months
• Put it all on a chart

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Manage your time Plan the Week Ahead

• On Fridays, write down in your diary what you
  should be doing next week
• Complete weeks work with report, summary..
• Hit the ground running on Monday
• (Of course this doesnt really apply since PhDs
  work on week-ends like their supervisors before
  them !)

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Macro and Micro Planning

• Plan your day the previous evening and make
  priority list
• - Morning experiment 2 of 6
  replicates-Afternoon data analysis, see
  boss, order chemicals Seminar at 4pm, tennis at
  6pm
• Dont over-pack the day with a TO DO list
  Allow for reading, thinking, peer chats

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Reports Blocks of Work

• Summarise data logically and DISCUSS with
  references (Endnote)
• Do one complete report every Quarter
• Match outcomes to agreed targets with supervisor
• Circulate draft to supervisor and objective
  colleague
• Reflective time to consider next steps
• Archived reports make Ph.D writing easy

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Why do some Ph.D. projects fail ?

• Shaky hypothesis
• PhD student not suitable
• No fall-back position when path blocked
• Poor supervision
• Bad project process

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Project Management Tools

• 1. Define the goal and set your eyes on the
  prize(Shackleton versus Scott)
• Write down a checklist of deliverables that will
  comprise the Goal - eg. Establishing methods,
  Theses Chapter titles.
• Read several excellent PhD theses NOW to see the
  standard and how to get there

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2. Make a list of the jobs to be done

• Write a plan to get you to the first point on the
  journey
• Some jobs will have to be done to get the ball
  rolling
• If the job is vague, break it down into several
  jobs and estimate the time requiredeg. To
  look at where a drug is going in the brain, you
  need the following skills.

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Sub-Project 1 out of 8. For each job..

• Resources required ?
• Skills required ? Training ?
• Identifiable milestones
• State all assumptions
• Dependencies outside your control
• High risk areas
• Timeline and how you arrived at it

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3. Leadership its your project

• Take ownership
• Show your supervisor that you can work to an
  agreed plan without needing to be micro-managed
• Meet your supervisor once a week or in a team
  setting and have specific goals in mind
  updating results, discussion points, next steps
  and when you aim to have them

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4. Manage Expectations

• Maximise chances of success
• Allow a margin for error- Order enough cell
  culture consumables to allow for an infection-
  If a plan takes 6 months to give an
  all-or-nothing piece of data, why not have
  something going along in parallel ?
• Whats Plan B ? - Test a hypothesis in a simple
  established system(eg. Laboratorio de
  Investigacion project)

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5. Monitoring progress-vibes

• Reports are regular
• You are having fun and are working como una burra
• Morale and confidence is high
• You feel your ability has increased
• Good lab atmosphere
• Milestones are being met
• A cerveza with the supervisor isnt so bad after
  all

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Bad vibes

• Nodding dogs in meetings
• Everythings under control
• You procrastinate
• You change the agreed research goalposts
• Crisises and mistakes abound
• You dont meet supervisor deadlines and dont
  discuss why
• Theres no evidence of real progress over a
  sustained period

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6. Communication

• Tools progress reports and meetings
• Show lab books to supervisor and peers regularly
• Resolve issues and review progress
• Keep assumptions, deliverables, timelines to the
  fore.
• Avoid supervisor howzitgoin sessions and get
  specific on how to move project forward
• Anticipate log-jams

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Meetings in Project Management

• Good meetings smash obstacles, resolve issues,
  move project forward
• Many drift along without purpose and have no
  agenda

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Good meetings (in general) ..

• Clear objectives
• (Identify participants/resources needed)
• Base agenda on above
• Outline any advance prep
• Set time constraints on each agenda item
• Chair drives through agenda
• Are minuted with Action Items for next meeting

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In managing your project

• Be wary of meetings if the following are not
  met- Clear objective- Required prep outlined
  (if needed)- Why do I need to go ??- How long
  will it last ?- (Who is the Chair ?)
• University supervisors are not trained to run
  good meetings

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Effective Lab Groups

• Clear goals and objectives
• Understanding and interdependence
• Cohesiveness
• Trust between group leader, postdocs, PhD
  students and technicians
• Potent force effect sum of partsLike
  Celtic FC last Thursday, or Ireland rugby last
  Saturday..

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Success Indicators

• For your performance Feedback Questionnaire
• Evaluate planned workplan with achieved
  workplanRegular review with supervisor and
  Graduate Studies CommitteeHow are you shaping
  up with respect to peers ?

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For the Project

• Goal still clear ?
• Milestones being met ?
• Are they well-defined or woolly ?
• Are my plans for the next few weeks clear and
  achievable ?
• Is there a margin for error achieved through a
  plausible fall-back position ?
• Am I writing regular reports ?
• Am I disseminating information ?

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But getting a Ph.D is never that simple

• You need to develop good problem-solving
  skills- Read good papers and attend lots of
  seminars - Brainstorm
• - Ideal solution ? Is there a less idyllic but
  acceptable one ? Plan B
• - Can I get an expert to do this piece while I
  focus on another aspect in parallel ?
• ..eg James Watson in the Double Helix

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But getting a Ph.D is never that simple

• The mental side can be tough- Stress when you
  are not in control of events- Keep a sense of
  proportion- Stay in contact with peers- Walk
  away at the end of the day- Be conscious of your
  own strengths and weaknesses- Changing project
  at the end of Year 1 is possible and you could
  still get out in the four years

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This isnt what I thought a Ph.D was about

• But most theses are not earth-shattering
• They are achieved by mature, hard-working,
  dogged, disciplined, tenacious people
• Writing, reading, mulling over data, talking to
  colleagues, going to meetings is part of the deal
• Justifying over-run on agreed 4 years (and soon
  will change to 3 years is not good for
  anybody.hence even more need for good project
  and time management

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Tools for planning management

• Gantt Chart
• Pert Chart
• Contingency Planning

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What is a Gantt chart?

• A Gantt chart is a horizontal bar chart developed
  as a production control tool in 1917 by Henry L.
  Gantt, an American engineer and social scientist.
  Frequently used in project management, a Gantt
  chart provides a graphical illustration of a
  schedule that helps to plan, coordinate, and
  track specific tasks in a project.
• Gantt charts may be simple versions created on
  graph paper or more complex automated versions
  created using project management applications
  such as Microsoft Project or Excel.

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What is a Gantt chart?

• A Gantt chart is constructed with a horizontal
  axis representing the total time span of the
  project, broken down into increments (for
  example, days, weeks, or months) and a vertical
  axis representing the tasks that make up the
  project (for example, if the project is
  outfitting your computer with new software, the
  major tasks involved might be conduct research,
  choose software, install software).

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What is a Gantt chart?

• Horizontal bars of varying lengths represent the
  sequences, timing, and time span for each task.
• Using the same example, you would put "conduct
  research" at the top of the verticle axis and
  draw a bar on the graph that represents the
  amount of time you expect to spend on the
  research, and then enter the other tasks below
  the first one and representative bars at the
  points in time when you expect to undertake them.

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What is a Gantt chart?

• The bar spans may overlap, as, for example, you
  may conduct research and choose software during
  the same time span.
• As the project progresses, secondary bars,
  arrowheads, or darkened bars may be added to
  indicate completed tasks, or the portions of
  tasks that have been completed.
• A vertical line is used to represent the report
  date

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Gantt Pert Charts

• Gantt charts give a clear illustration of project
  status, but one problem with them is that they
  don't indicate task dependencies - you cannot
  tell how one task falling behind schedule affects
  other tasks.
• The PERT chart, another popular project
  management charting method, is designed to do
  this.
• Automated Gantt charts store more information
  about tasks, such as the individuals assigned to
  specific tasks, and notes about the procedures.
  They also offer the benefit of being easy to
  change, which is helpful.
• Charts may be adjusted frequently to reflect the
  actual status of project tasks as, almost
  inevitably, they diverge from the original plan.

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What is a Pert Chart?

• A PERT chart is a project management tool used to
  schedule, organize, and coordinate tasks within a
  project. PERT stands for Program Evaluation
  Review Technique, a methodology developed by the
  U.S. Navy in the 1950s to manage the Polaris
  submarine missile program.
• A similar methodology, the Critical Path Method
  (CPM), which was developed for project management
  in the private sector at about the same time, has
  become synonymous with PERT, so that the
  technique is known by any variation on the names
  PERT, CPM, or PERT/CPM.

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What is a Pert Chart?
Numbered rectangles are nodes and represent
events or milestones Directional arrows represent
dependent tasks that must be completed
sequentially Diverging arrow directions indicate
possibly concurrent tasks Dotted lines indicate
dependent tasks that do not require resources
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What is a Pert Chart?

• A PERT chart A PERT chart presents a graphic
  illustration of a project as a network diagram
  consisting of numbered nodes (either circles or
  rectangles) representing events, or milestones in
  the project linked by labelled vectors
  (directional lines) representing tasks in the
  project.
• The direction of the arrows on the lines
  indicates the sequence of tasks. In the diagram,
  for example, the tasks between nodes 1, 2, 4, 8,
  and 10 must be completed in sequence. These are
  called dependent or serial tasks.

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What is a Pert Chart?

• The tasks between nodes 1 and 2, and nodes 1 and
  3 are not dependent on the completion of one to
  start the other and can be undertaken
  simultaneously. These tasks are called parallel
  or concurrent tasks.
• Tasks that must be completed in sequence but that
  don't require resources or completion time are
  considered to have event dependency. These are
  represented by dotted lines with arrows and are
  called dummy activities. For example, the dashed
  arrow linking nodes 6 and 9 indicates that the
  system files must be converted before the user
  test can take place, but that the resources and
  time required to prepare for the user test
  (writing the user manual and user training) are
  on another path.
• Numbers on the opposite sides of the vectors
  indicate the time allotted for the task.

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Pert Gantt Chart - software

• The Pert Chart is often preferred over the Gantt
  Chart as it is easier and clearer to read for
  simple projects. However, for complex projects
  it is very difficukt to read and generally both
  Pert and Gantt charts are used.
• There are numerous software programs available
  for making Pert and Gantt charts, the most
  popular of which is Microsoft Project.
• For free trial downloads
• MS Project http//www.microsoft.com/office/trial
  /default.mspx
• SMARTDRAW
• http//www.smartdraw.com/
• Good tutorial with quicktime video at
  http//www.computer-training-software.com/project2
  000.htm

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Examples GANTT real vs planned
89
Examples - GANTT
90
Examples - CPM
91
Examples - Pert
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Contingency Planning

• For each task identified in your research plan,
  you should carry out a risk analysis and based on
  the risk analysis a contingency plan should be
  outlined.
• Thus for each task label tham as being of Low,
  Medium or High risk and for the medium or
  high risks, outline what you could do or what
  alternate path there is if the task cannot be
  achieved with the current workplan
• Contingency planning should also include the
  possibilities of reagents from particular
  providers being out of stock, equipment breakdown
  etc.

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Mayonnaise Project

• Identify tasks
• Identify resources
• Identify timing of tasks and interdependency
• Deliverables and Milestones
• Outline contingency planning

Work together in groups of 4 and do preliminary
workplan for mayonnaise project
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But dont overcomplicate things!
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Workplan

• Tasks
• Literature search to see state of the art
• Identify project goals
• Identify oils and vinegars to be used
• Purchase oils and vinegars
• Purchase salmonella culture
• Purchase eggs
• Prepare mayonnaise
• Prepare salmonella culture
• Measure pH
• Measure Acetic Acid Content
• Analyse Results
• Plot results
• Prepare manuscript
• Submit

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Workplan

• Timing
• Literature search to see state of the art 1
  week
• Identify project goals 3 days
• Identify oils and vinegars to be used 3 days
• Purchase oils and vinegars 3 days
• Purchase salmonella culture 3 days
• Purchase eggs 3 days
• Prepare mayonnaise 1 day for each batch (14
  days)
• Prepare salmonella culture 1 day for each batch
  (7days
• Measure pH 1 day for each batch
• Measure Acetic Acid Content 1 day for each
  batch
• Analyse Results 1 week
• Plot results 1 week
• Prepare manuscript 3 weeks
• Submit

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Workplan

• Resources
• Oils
• Vinegars
• Eggs
• Salmonella culture
• BM test kit
• Genral lab reagents
• pH meter
• Culture facilities
• Microscope
• Technician
• Student

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Gantt Chart
99
Pert Chart
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Workplan

• Deliverables
• Purchase of raw materials
• Preparation of mayonnaise
• pH measurement
• Acetic Acid Content
• Milestones
• Correlation of acidulation and oils on
  autosterilisation of mayonnaise

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Workplan

• Contingency Planning
• No emulsion formed - change oils change egg to
  oil to acidulant ration
• No autosterilisation observed change egg to oil
  to acidulant ratio
• No trend between oil/acidulant content and
  killing of salmonella re-design experiment to
  include other parameters OR this could indicate a
  GO/NO-GO POINT.
• A Go/no Go Point can be reached when the project
  cannot proceed as previously planned and thus
  must be started over, dramatically modified or
  abandoned.

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Homework

• A workplan,
• incorporating identification of research tasks,
• time and resources required to carry out research
  tasks,
• identification of deliverables and milestones and
  their timing as well a contingency plan, should
  be prepared.
• This workplan will also include identification of
  required resources and a Gantt/Pert type chart.