Development of Religion in State Societies

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Development of Religion in State Societies

• Text extracted from
• Our Kind
• By Marvin Harris

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Role of Priests

• Humans wish for goods and services from the gods
• It was the job of ecclesiastical specialists
  (priests) to obtain these

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Obtaining favors from gods

• Aggressive approach Threaten to harm the gods
  who do not cooperate. 
• Does not work with supreme beings.
• Exchange goods and services with the gods
• Offerings

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Obtaining favor from the gods

• Appeal to the gods' mercy and generosity
• promising love and devotion in return
• Sacrifice as an expression of devotion
• destruction of ones property,
• self mutilation,
• slaying a loved one.

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The gods want food

• For exchange with gods, what do gods want?
• Answer gods want what people value most -- food
  and drink
• Without gods help, humans cannot feed themselves
• Must feed the gods to get that help.

Offering of food to the gods
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Redistribution

• But gods only require spiritual essence of food
  set out for them
• The material food itself can be redistributed to
  the people.
• Gifts of food and donations to the gods became
  taxes for the church in larger state societies.

Ziggarut (Mesopotamia)
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Meat offerings

• Meat central focus of food sacrifices to the
  gods
• Meat is the most prestigious and desired food
  among humans and therefore also gods
• Thus animal slaughter and religious ritual
  closely intertwined

Hebrew animal sacrifice
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Solomons Temple

• At  the dedication of first temple in Jerusalem,
  King Solomon sacrificed 22,000 oxen and 120,000
  sheep as a peace offering.
• Meat was not left to rot, but was redistributed
  to people in feasting.

Solomons Temple
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Human Sacrifice

• Human flesh was not generally viewed as meat the
  gods liked to eat.
• Human sacrifice in most instances was intended to
  win the sympathy of the gods.
• Usually children were sacrificed buried beneath
  foundations of buildings or burned in Biblical
  times.

Abraham to sacrifice Isaac
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Human Sacrifice

• In Carthage, 20,000 children were sacrificed
• 400-200 B.C.
• Buried in urns.

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Human Sacrifice

• Prisoners of war also sacrificed.
• Most widespread human sacrifice occurred at the
  death and burial of kings. 
• Often all wives, concubines, cooks, grooms and
  other servants killed when king died.  

Zhou Dynasty, China
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The gods who would not eat people

• Why did the gods not like to eat people?
• Not an ethical impulse of humans to protect human
  life
• humans readily slaughtered on battlefield.
• Did people not prefer to eat humans?
• Not likely
• Cannibalism practiced in many band-and-village
  societies and chiefdoms
• often prisoners of war eaten

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Large State Societies

• It was more cost effective to turn prisoners of
  war into slaves.
• Each farmer and worker in a state society can
  produce a surplus of goods and services.
• The larger the population, the more surplus, and
  the more powerful the governing class becomes.

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Band and Village Societies

• Cannot produce large surpluses
• Have no large central government to unite
  defeated enemies
• Have no governing class to benefit from taxation.
  
• Bringing a captive home to be a slave is just one
  more mouth to feed.
• Therefore, more benefit derived from eating a
  captive

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The gods who ate people

• Aztecs had a large state society
• Their gods craved human flesh, especially human
  hearts.
• Big question why cannibalism here and not in
  other state societies?

http//www.gnosticassociationny.org/AC_Complete.jp
g
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Job of Aztec Priests

• To satisfy craving of gods for human flesh
• If craving not satisfied, gods would destroy the
  world.
• Prisoners held down on top of pyramid temples,
  heart cut out still beating, offered to gods.

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Redistribution

• Body of prisoner rolled down pyramid
• Head cut off and displayed
• Flesh redistributed for meat.
• Cortez found 136,000 heads of sacrificial victims

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Why Aztec prisoners eaten, not slaves?

• Lack of domesticated animals for meat in new
  world.
• No other way Aztec rulers could play the role of
  being great providers by redistributive feasting
• Also satisfy human physiological dietary needs
  for protein, vitamins and minerals found in meat

Aztec ritual sacrifice
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The Non-killing Religions

• In the 1000 years before birth of Christ
• New charismatic leaders arose in the
  Mediterranean, Middle East, Persia, India
• New leaders denounced ritual killing of people or
  animals as way to win favors from gods.

Zoroaster
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The Non-killing Religions

• Gods demand lifetime devoted to
• good deeds,
• love,
• kindness to people
• and all living things
• If
• Defend the poor and weak
• Restrain appetites and ego
• Then
• expect reward in heaven
• immortality or eternal peace.

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Zoroastrianism

• Ancient Iran and Persian Empire, then died out.
• Founded by Zoroaster (Zarathrustra)
• 7th century B.C.
• after a vision of Ahura Mazda,
• Lord of Enlightenment
• Cosmic struggle between
• god of Good (Ahura Mazda) and
• god of Evil (Ahariman)
• Dualism
• good versus bad

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Zoroastrianism

• Humans free to choose one side or other
• If choose Ahura Mazda,
• must give up intoxicants,
• ritual slaughter of animals,
• and shedding of blood
• go to heaven when die
• If choose Ahairman,
• go to hell when die.

Ahura Mazda
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Jainism

• Arose in India, still practiced by 2 million
  followers
• Founded by Mahavira in 6th century B.C.
• after he achieved spiritual fulfillment
• opposing Vedic traditions of animal slaughter and
  redistribution.
• Accepted rebirth,
• but denounced caste system and Brahmin rituals

Mahavira
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Jainism

• Path of liberation involves 5 vows
• do not kill, tell lies, steal, fornicate,
• or acquire excessive riches
• Animals, even insects not killed.
• Adepts had higher standards
• complete chastity,
• self mortification including exposure to hunger,
  thirst, cold, insect bites and intense heat.

http//www.tiscali.co.uk/reference/encyclopaedia/h
utchinson/images/71034.jpg
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Buddhism

• Arose in India, spread to far east
• Founded by Guatama Siddhartha
• 6th century B.C. after enlightenment
• He realized that
• he must give up self-inflicted fasting and
  punishment
• and find a middle way.
• Opposed
• caste system and
• animal -killing religion of the Vedas

Enlightenment of Buddha
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Buddhism

• Eight-fold way to achieve nirvana
• (deliverance from cycle of reincarnation and
  pain)
• mental and physical discipline to avoid
• lying,
• lusting,
• killing of animals or people,
• stealing, or
• bringing harm to others.

http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ImageKamakura_Budda_
Daibutsu_front_1885.jpg
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Hinduism

• Evolved in India from Vedas
• Vedic Brahmans gave up killing of animals
• and instead became guardians of animal life
• All Hindu castes work to
• prevent slaughter of cattle, and
• consumption of beef
• Ahimsa, or reverence for all living beings
• became central ethical component.

Krishna
http//www.guruji.it/galleria/krishna/krishna1.jpg
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Judaism

• Judiasm was not an otherworldly, soul-saving
  religion
• Israelites followed Yahweh's commandments to be
• blessed with progeny,
• free from disease,
• victorious in battle, and
• Have abundant wheat, wine, oil, cattle, and
  sheep.
• Animal sacrifice occurred on a large scale in
  ancient Judaism.
• Not really a non-killing religion
• despite commandment "Thou shall not kill"

Moses
http//metamedia.stanford.edu/imagebin/moses.jpg
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Christianity

• Arose from Judaism
• One of the more recent non-killing religions
• Christianity removed animal sacrifice and
  redistribution of meat
• and replaced it with symbolic meal Eucharist
  Ritual (last supper).
• Apostle Paul said that the blood of animals
  cannot take away sin
• God had sacrificed his only son to remove human
  sin, and those without sin would have eternal
  life.

Jesus Christ
http//www.heart-cry.com/love/Jesus_ws.jpg
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Origin of Non-Killing Religions

• Why did Non-killing religions arise, replacing
  redistributive feasting?
• States were being ravaged by brutal and costly
  wars
• Environmental depletions, population growth, and
  the rise of cities created food shortages
• Thus difficult to maintain a steady supply of
  meat for redistributive feasting
• The class system produced widespread poverty
  among the common people

Jesus and the poor
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Zoroaster

• Zoroaster lived in a time of political
  instability and cultural change

http//www.wga.hu/art/r/raphael/4stanze/1segnatu/1
/athens7.jpg
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1500-500 BC India

• Vedic meat-redistributive religions (Ganges
  Valley) thrived
• Populations were small and spread out in villages
  
• There were dense forests, and fodder for animals.
  
• No conflict between raising animals and plowing
  fields.

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India 600 BC

• By 600 B.C. when Jainism and Buddhism arose
• Most people in the Ganges Valley lived in a state
  society
• Population had risen to the millions
• Towns and cities had sprung up
• The Gangetic plain had become deforested

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India 600 BC

• There was a shortage of pasture and fodder
• Oxen were too scarce to be consumed in feasts
• (and were needed to plow fields)
• Warfare was incessant
• droughts produced dust bowls.

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India 600 BC

• Lakes, wells and springs were dried up...
  Sacrifices were in abeyance.  Agriculture and
  cattle-rearing were given up.  Markets and shops
  were abandoned... Festivals died out.  Everywhere
  heaps of bones were seen and cries of creatures
  heard.  The cities were depopulated, hamlets
  burnt down.  People fled from fear of one another
  or of robbers, weapons, and kings.  Places of
  worship were deserted.  The aged were turned out
  of their houses 

• -- Hindu epic poem Mahabarata

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India 600 BC

• Kine, goats, sheep and buffalo fought and died
  in large numbers.  The Brahmans died without
  protection.  Herds and plants withered.  The
  earth looked like trees in a crematorium.  In
  that dreadful age when righteousness was at an
  end, men...began to eat one another"

-- Hindu epic poem Mahabarata
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Christianity

• Arose At a time of guerrilla wars aimed at
  overthrowing Roman power.
• High priests, big landowners, and wealthy
  merchants lived in splendor, amidst
• widespread unemployment,
• landlessness, and
• mistreatment of peasants and slaves.

Pontius Pilate, Roman procurator of Judea
http//www.forumancientcoins.com/forvm/Articles/Po
ntius20Pilate/images/fontanille1.jpg
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Christianity

• Throughout the Roman Empire one did not have to
  be a slave or peasant
• to be appalled and to feel threatened by the
• corruption,
• brutality,
• class antagonisms and
• ceaseless wars

Roman Slave Market
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Christianity

• Apostle Paul preached that the promised kingdom
  was not on earth but in heaven.
• Neither worldly riches nor worldly pain were
  important
• because those who loved humankind,
• lived in peace, and
• believed in Jesus
• would be rewarded with the gift of eternal life.

Apostle Paul
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Religions of Love and Mercy

• To become world religions, the religions of love
  and mercy
• Sponsored and encouraged military conquest
• Aided and abetted harsh forms of political
  repression
• and control.

Catholics versus Protestants
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How Non-killing Religions Spread

• None of the non-killing religions has reduced the
  incidence or ferocity of war
• Each is implicated in devastating inversions of
  the principle of non-killing and reverence for
  life.

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Appeal to Founders of Empires

• Concern with the soul's prospects in the next
  life
• Advantages in preserving and incorporating
  defeated populations as as source of labor and
  wealth.
• Non-killing religions reassured the enemy that
  they could survive capture, and made foreign rule
  easier
• Promise of rewards in afterlife instead of
  rewards to the body in life was convenient

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Appeal to Founders of Empires

• Life on earth was painful,
• but poverty and suffering improved ones chances
  of eternal bliss
• Governing class did not have to provide wealth
  and happiness
• to validate its right to govern.
• Redistribution could not work anyway
• in times of high population, environmental
  destruction, economic crisis
• Killing justified by self-defense
• or wars that were Just, Good and Holy
• Soldiers went into battle convinced that their
  souls would be rewarded
• if they died in combat

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Buddhism

• Spread throughout India and into the far east
  via 1000 years of war.
• Kublai Khan converted to Buddhism, then conquered
  China
• 1279 A.D.

Kublai Khan
http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kublai_Khan
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Spread of Buddhism
http//go.hrw.com/venus_images/0306MC06.gif
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Hindus drive out Buddhists

• Hindus battled Buddhists in India for hundreds of
  years
• Buddhists eventually defeated, driven out of
  their homeland (India)

Buddhist Temple, Thailand
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Christianity

• Roman Emperor Constantine converted to
  Christianity in 312 A.D.
• The Roman Empire became Christian
• Christians were obliged to perform military
  service for the Empire
• Rival Christian factions (Gnostics) were
  suppressed Roman Church dominated

Christian Gnostic Factions
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Christianity

• Pagan worship, Pagan temples, Judiasm, and
  Manichaeism all severely dealt with
• Emperor Justinian (529 A.D.) ordered all who
  refused to become Christians to surrender their
  property and go into exile.

Justinian
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Religions of Europe 1100-1200 A.D.
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http//www.neiu.edu/ejhowens/104/religion.gif