CHANGES IN THE NATURE AND FUNCTIONS OF STATE STRUCTURES

1
1750 - 1914

• CHANGES IN THE NATURE AND FUNCTIONS OF STATE
  STRUCTURES

2
REVOLUTIONARY IDEAS

• Revolution
• A popular idea, means to an end
• A way to restructure society
• Popular sovereignty
• Relocating sovereignty in the people
• Traditional monarchs
• Claimed a "divine right" to rule
• Derived from God, unquestionable
• Monarch unanswerable to people
• Constitutional Limitations
• Aristocracy, Enlightenment challenged king
• Glorious Revolution of 1688
• Made the monarch responsible to the people
• John Locke's theory of contractual government
• Authority comes from the consent of the governed
• Freedom and equality
• Demands for freedom of worship
• Freedom of expression, assembly
• Demands for political and legal equality

3
TYPES OF REVOLUTIONS

• Aristocratic Revolution
• Aristocracy fights to preserve privileges
• Often against royal absolutism
• Rarely for other classes rights
• Usually ends with constitution, limits on
  monarchy
• English Glorious Revolution (1688) is an example
• Bourgeois (liberal) Revolution
• Middle class seeks rights equal to nobility
• Extension of franchise, ability to hold office
• Issues of taxation often involved
• Reforms limited and rarely radical, franchise
  limited
• American (1776), French (1789), Meiji Restoration
  (1867)
• Latin American Revolutions (1820s)
• Mass revolutions
• Most of society effected and involved
• Often goals are quite radical
• Methods to achieve are often quite violent
• Nationalist Revolutions
• China (1911)

4
REFORM

• Often system allowed change without radical
  means, violence
• Reform was a theme of 1750 1914
• Reform movements
• Increased, responsive democratic representation,
  institutions
• Expansion of male suffrage was the key issue
• One of the hallmarks of a democratic society
• Very successful in US, Western Europe, British
  settler colonies, Japan
• Less so in Latin America, Russia, Eastern Europe,
  Africa, Asia
• Abolition of slavery, serfdom
• Abolition movement was very successful
• Other forms of coercive labor replaced them
• Racial, social equality did not follow
• Women Rights
• One goal was full female franchise
• Not achieved until after 1914 but progress
• Foreign Reform Movements
• India Civil Service Act
• China Self-Strengthening
• Tanzimat (Turkey)

5
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION

• Tension between Britain, American colonies
• Legacy of Seven Years' War
• British debt, North American tax burden
• Colonists increasingly independent minded
• Colonial protest
• Over taxes, trade policies, Parliamentary rule
• Colonial boycott of British goods
• Attacks on British officials Boston Tea Party,
  1773
• Political protest over representation in
  Parliament
• Continental Congress, 1774
• British troops, colonial militia skirmished at
  the village of Lexington, 1775
• The Declaration of Independence, 4 July 1776
• Thirteen united States of America severed ties
  with Britain
• Declaration inspired by Enlightenment, Locke's
  theory of government
• The American Revolution, 1775-1781
• British advantages strong government, navy,
  army, loyalists in colonies
• American advantages European allies, George
  Washington's leadership
• Weary of a costly conflict, British forces
  surrendered in 1781
• Building an independent state Constitutional
  Convention, 1787

6
FRENCH REVOLUTION NAPOLEON

• Summoning the Estates General
• Financial crisis half of government revenue went
  to national debt
• King Louis XVI forced to summon Estates General
  to raise new taxes
• Many representatives wanted sweeping political
  and social reform
• First and Second Estates (nobles, clergy) tried
  to limit Third Estate (commoners)
• National Assembly
• Formed by representatives of Third Estate, 17
  June 1789
• Demanded a written constitution and popular
  sovereignty
• Angry mob seized the Bastille on 14 July, sparked
  insurrections in many cities
• National Assembly wrote the "Declaration of the
  Rights of Man and the Citizen"
• "Liberty, equality, and fraternity slogan and
  values of the National Assembly
• The Assembly abolished the feudal system, altered
  the role of church
• France became a constitutional monarchy, 1791
• The Convention and the Reign of Terror
• Replaced National Assembly under new
  constitution, 1791
• Austrian and Prussian armies invaded France to
  restore ancien régime
• Convention abolished the monarchy and proclaimed
  France a republic
• King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette
  executed, 1793
• Radical Jacobins dominated Convention in 1793-94
  in "reign of terror"

7
THE POLITICAL SPECTRUM
8
HAITIAN REVOLUTION

• Saint-Domingue
• Rich French colony on western Hispaniola
• Society dominated by small white planter class
• 90 percent of population were slaves
• Horrendous working conditions
• Large communities of escaped slaves (maroons)
• Ideas of Enlightenment reached educated blacks
• Free blacks fought in American war
• Widespread discontent
• White settlers sought self-governance
• Gens de couleur sought political rights
• Slaves wanted freedom
• Slave revolt began in 1791
• Factions of white settlers, gens de couleur,
  slaves battled each other
• French troops arrived in 1792 British, Spanish
  intervened in 1793
• Slaves conquer whole island including Spanish
  part
• Whites driven into exile, executed
• Toussaint Louverture (1744-1803)
• Son of slaves, literate, son of Enlightenment

9
INDEPENDENCE IN LATIN AMERICA

• Latin American society rigidly hierarchical
• Social classes peninsulares, creoles, mestizos,
  slaves, indigenous peoples
• Creoles sought to displace the peninsulares but
  retain their privileged position
• Mestizos form the largest part of population,
  wanted rights
• Mexican independence
• Napoleon's invasion of Spain in 1807 weakened
  royal control of colonies
• 1810 peasant revolt in Mexico led by Hidalgo,
  defeated by conservative creoles
• 1821 Mexico briefly a military dictatorship,
  then in 1822 a republic
• Southern Viceroyalty of New Spain split into
  several independent states in 1830s
• Simon Bolivar to 1822
• Led independence movement in South America
• Inspired by George Washington, took arms against
  Spanish rule in 1811
• Creole forces overcame Spanish armies throughout
  South America, 1824
• Bolivar's effort of creating the Gran Colombia
  failed in 1830s
• Jose de San Martin to 1825
• Led independence movements in Bolivia, Argentina,
  Chile
• United efforts with Bolivar
• Brazilian independence
• Portuguese royal court fled to Rio de Janeiro,
  1807

10
THE NEW AMERICAN MAP
11
LATIN AMERICA

• Old Problems confront new realities
• Leaders came from Enlightenment spoke of
  equality, freedom
• No allowance freedom of religion
• Slavery ended but not exploitation of poor,
  Indians
• Equality was too threatening to elite
• Democracy uncommon, rich men voted
• Old color distinctions did not disappear rapidly,
  easily, or at all
• Political fragmentation
• Political instability after independence
• Creole leaders ruled but had little experience
  with self-government
• White minority dominated politics
• Peasant majority was without power
• Political instability aggravated by division
  among elites
• Constant argument between centralizing and
  federalizing pressures
• Conflicts between farmers, ranchers, indigenous
  peoples common
• Intense fighting in Argentina, Chile modern
  weapons against native peoples
• Colonists had pacified most productive land by
  1870s
• Caudillos, Caudillism, Politics and the Church
• Military leaders who held power after
  revolutionary era

12
NATIONALISM

• Born in France (Joan of Arc), spread abroad
  during French Revolution
• Idea began as radical, adopted by liberals, used
  by conservatives
• An idea which could unify society across social
  classes
• Many aspects similar to religion, faith
• Loyalty to state often replaces loyalty to
  church, monarch
• Dominated 19th century
• Cultural nationalism
• An expression of national identity
• Emphasized common historical experience
• Used folk culture, literature, music
• Illustrated national spirit, distinctiveness
• Political nationalism more intense in the
  nineteenth century
• Demanded loyalty, solidarity from national group
• Minorities sought independence as national
  community
• Young Italy formed by Giuseppe Mazzini
• World-wide spread
• Contact with Europeans introduced others to idea
  of nationalism
• Nationalism often brought with it western ideas,
  structures
• Strongest in Middle East, India, Japan

13
EMERGENCE OF IDEOLOGIES

• Conservatism
• Called the Ancien Regime
• Resisted change, opposed revolutions
• Importance of continuity, tradition, aristocracy
• Edmund Burke
• Viewed society as organism that changed slowly
  over time
• American Revolution natural, logical outcome of
  history
• French Revolution violent and irresponsible
• Congress of Vienna was a Conservative restoration
• Restored Balance of Power ruled through great
  powers
• Monarchy was at heart of conservatism
• Liberalism
• Welcomed controlled change as an agent of
  progress
• Strongly middle class, support economic reform,
  education to help industrialization
• Wanted to reform political structure, increase
  electorate slightly
• Championed freedom, equality, democracy, written
  constitutions
• Limits on state power, interference in individual
  freedoms
• John Stuart Mill championed individual freedom
  and minority rights
• Radicalism

14
IMAGINED COMMUNITIES

• Concert of Europe 1815 - 1860
• Congress of Vienna, 1814-15
• Conservative victory restore old order after
  defeat of Napoleon
• Maintained balance of power in Europe for a
  century
• Failed in repressing nationalist and
  revolutionary ideas
• Concert of European great powers called Holy
  Alliance
• UK, Russia, Prussia, Austria, France working in
  concert
• Attempted to prevent revolutions, change
• Intervened militarily to oppose change
• Often forced to limit, control changes
• Nationalist rebellions
• Against old order throughout nineteenth century
• 1800s Haiti, Latin America
• 1820s
• Greek Revolution rebels overcame Ottoman rule in
  1827
• Mehmet Ali in Egypt, defeated by French, English,
  Russians
• 1830/1848
• Italy, Belgium, France, Spain, Portugal, Poland,
  Austria, Germany
• Conservatism usually restored but revolutionary
  ideals persisted

15
THE SOCIALIST CHALLENGE

• Socialism
• Arose as an outgrowth of the Industrial
  Revolution
• Accelerated by the horrible conditions of the
  workers in the cities
• Utopian socialists
• Charles Fourier, Robert Owen, and their followers
  
• Established model communities based on principle
  of equality
• Stressed cooperative control of industry,
  education for all children
• Marxian Socialists (Communists)
• Marx (1818-1883), Engels (1820-1895), leading
  socialists
• Scorned the utopian socialists as unrealistic,
  unproductive
• Critique of industrial capitalism
• Unrestrained competition led to ruthless
  exploitation of working class
• State, courts, police all tools of the
  capitalist ruling class
• The Communist Manifesto, 1848
• Claimed excesses of capitalism would lead to a
  communist revolution
• Revolution would wipe away capitalism and
  establish a socialist society
• Dictatorship of the proletariat" would destroy
  capitalism
• Socialism would follow a fair, just, and
  egalitarian society
• Ideas dominated European, international socialism
  throughout 19th century

16
UNIFICATION OF ITALY, GERMANY

• Italy
• After Congress of Vienna
• Italy divided into small states all states
  except Sardinia, Papacy ruled by foreign
  dynasties
• Austria was the preeminent power in Italy
• Mazzini, Nationalist, formed Young Italy inspired
  uprisings against foreign rule
• 1848 Nationalist revolution destroyed by Austrian
  troops
• Sardinia and Cavour
• Italian Sardinia only ethnic Italian state
• Prime Minister of Sardinia becomes leader of
  nationalists
• Expelled Austrian authorities in northern Italy,
  1859 with French aide
• Garibaldi
• Revolutionary nationalist, democrat
• Staged revolutions, later seized control of
  Southern Italy
• 1860-1870 Italian states united under Sardinia
• Germany
• After Congress of Vienna Dominated by Austrian
  von Metternich
• German Confederacy a collection of independent
  states dominated by Austria
• Prussia the largest German state but limited in
  action by Austria
• Metternichs System preserved conservatism,
  persecuted liberalism, hated nationalism

17
MAPS OF UNIFICATION
18
THE UNITED STATES

• Jacksonian Democracy
• Expansion of electorate to include poorer,
  western Americans
• By 1820s all adult white men could vote and hold
  office
• Constant tension between states rights, federal
  powers
• Rapid westward expansion after the revolution
• Britain ceded lands east of Mississippi to US
• 1803, US purchased France's Louisiana Territory
• By 1840s, coast-to-coast expansion was claimed as
  manifest destiny
• The Mexican-American War, 1845-1848
• Conflict with indigenous peoples followed
• 1830, Indian Removal Act forced eastern Indians
  to move west of Mississippi
• Thousands died on the "Trail of Tears" to
  Oklahoma
• Stiff resistance to expansion Battle of Little
  Big Horn, 1876, Sioux victory
• U.S. massacre at Wounded Knee, 1890, ended Indian
  Wars
• An Era of Compromise Avoided Conflict 1820-1854
• North had the population, dominated House of
  Representatives
• South wanted to preserve slavery but would lose a
  vote in House
• Missouri Compromise in 1820 admitted one slave,
  one free state
• South able to block abolition of slavery in
  Senate

19
USA IN MAPS
20
CANADIAN DOMINION

• Independence came without war
• Autonomy and division characterized Canadian
  history
• Distance from England, isolation in north and
  interior led to self-government, autonomy
• Always a contest between English speaking, French
  speaking groups
• Immigrants and Amerindians dominated in the
  interior
• Eastern Canada (Quebec, Ontario, Maritime
  Provinces) dominate Canada
• French Quebec taken by Britain after the Seven
  Years' War
• Quebec Act was a large cause of war with American
  colonies
• British authorities made large concessions to
  French Canadians
• After 1781, many British loyalists fled United
  States to seek refuge in Canada
• The War of 1812 unified Canada against U.S.
  invaders
• Anti-U.S. sentiments due to US invasions,
  pillaging
• Created sense of unity among French and British
  Canadians
• 1830s
• Increased Irish, English, Scottish, German
  immigration
• Tensions between French, growing English
  population
• Metis Rebellion French Indians rebel in west
• 1840-1867, British granted home rule to Canadians
• Dominion of Canada created in 1867

21
CANADA IN IMAGES
22
EURASIAN SOCIETIES AT A CROSSROAD

• Threatened Societies
• SW Asia Ottoman Empire, Persia
• Eastern Europe Russia, Austria-Hungary
• East Asia China, Korea, and Japan
• Southeast Asia Vietnam, Thailand
• Common problems
• Military weakness, vulnerability to foreign
  threats
• Internal weakness especially from disaffected
  groups
• Economic problems, financial difficulties
• Corruption and unresponsive elites
• Issues of westernization vs. modernization
• Western interests often dominate government,
  economy
• Reform efforts
• Attempts at political and educational reform
• Attempts at industrialization
• Often turned to western models
• Different results of reforms
• Ottoman Empire, Austria, Russia, Iran, and China
• Reforms unsuccessful

23
EURASIA IN 1871
24
OTTOMAN DECLINE

• Military decline since the late seventeenth
  century
• Ottoman forces behind European armies in
  strategy, tactics, weaponry, training
• Janissary corps politically corrupt,
  undisciplined, unable to fight
• Provincial governors gained power, private armies
• Russia made war on Ottomans to divert domestic
  problems
• Austria, other European powers support local
  Christians independence
• Lost Caucasus and central Asia to Russia
• Western frontiers to Austria
• Balkan provinces to Greece and Serbia
• Egypt gained autonomy after Napoleon's failed
  campaign in 1798
• Egyptian general Muhammad Ali built a powerful,
  modern army
• Ali's army threatened Ottomans, made Egypt an
  autonomous province
• France annexes Muslim Algeria in 1830 and Tunisia
  in 1882
• The State
• Government was cumbersome, bureaucratized,
  medieval
• State was multinational and not all Muslim
• Power resided often with the provincial
  governors, elite
• Unwilling to adopt modern European methods or
  reform infrastructure
• Dominated by bureaucrats, landed elite unwilling
  to change

25
OTTOMAN REFORM, REORGANIZATION

• Attempt to reform military
• Led to violent Janissary revolt (1807-1808),
  suppression of Janissaries
• Reformer Mahmud II (1808-1839) became sultan
  after revolt
• Janissaries resisted, Mahmud had them killed
  reforms followed
• He built an European-style army, academies,
  schools, roads, and telegraph
• Legal, educational reforms
• Called Tanzimat ("reorganization") era
  (1839-1876)
• Ruling class sought sweeping restructuring to
  strengthen state
• Broad legal reforms, modeled after Napoleon's
  civic code
• State reform of education (1846), free and
  compulsory primary education (1869)
• Undermined authority of the ulama, enhanced the
  state authority
• Opposition to Tanzimat reforms
• Religious conservatives critical of attack on
  Islamic law and tradition
• Legal equality for minorities resented by some,
  even a few minority leaders
• Young Ottomans wanted more reform freedom,
  autonomy, decentralization
• High-level bureaucrats wanted more power, checks
  on the sultan's power
• Cycles of reform and repression
• 1876, coup staged by bureaucrats who demanded a
  constitutional government
• New sultan Abd al-Hamid II (1876-1909)

26
MUSLIM RESISTANCE

• Resistance
• Muslim universities
• Frequently organized education around western
  model
• Educated several generations of students
• Muslim Army Officers in Service of Europeans
• Often educated in western style universities,
  learned western ideas
• Become source of anti-Western activities even
  while supporting reform
• Revolt in the Sudan
• Egypt nominally ruled Sudan, attempted to enforce
  control
• Egypt able to control Nile farmers opposition
  comes from nomads, herders
• Rule greatly resented as it was corrupt,
  overtaxed peasants
• British pressure Egyptians to eradicate slavery,
  upsetting Muslims (Koran allows)
• Muhammad Achmad The Mahdi (1870s)
• Direct descendant of the Prophet Muhammad
  proclaims jihad against Egyptians, British
  masters
• Wahhabis Reformer A very puritanical form of
  Islam, seeks to purify Islam
• Purge Islam of problems reform, modernize but
  not at expense to Islam
• Overran all of Sudan, threatens Egypt, killed
  British commander at Khartoum
• Khalifa Abdallahi and the Mahdist state
• The Mahdi dies his successor builds an Islamic
  state under rule of Koran

27
QING (MANCHU) CHINA

• Qing China (1622 1911)
• Nomadic dynasty from Manchuria
• To rule, maintained strict separation of Chinese,
  Manchu
• Chinese not allowed to settle in Manchuria
• Manchurians not allowed to marry Chinese
• Retained much of Chinese political traditions,
  institutions
• Retained examination system
• Ruled through Confucian scholars
• Qing Army
• Manchurian nomadic army based on cavalry
• Unwilling to use modern weapons
• Rot from Within begins in 18th century
• Emperor isolated, ineffective
• Surrounded by eunuchs, advisors who kept him
  isolated
• Lived in Forbidden City at center of Beijing
• Extreme politics amongst bureaucrats, eunuchs,
  harem
• Bureaucracy
• Too large and cumbersome, corrupt and
  conservative
• Examination system riddled with favoritism,
  elitism, cheating

28
CHINA UNDER PRESSURE

• The Taiping rebellion
• Internal turmoil in China in the later nineteenth
  century
• Population grew by 50 percent land and food more
  slowly poverty strained resources
• Other problems official corruption, drug
  addiction
• Four major rebellions in 1850s and 1860s the
  most dangerous was the Taiping
• The Taiping ("Great Peace") program proposed by
  Hong Xiuquan
• Called for end of Qing dynasty resented Manchu
  rule
• Radical social change no private property,
  footbinding, concubinage
• Popular in southeast China seized Nanjing
  (1853), moved on Beijing
• Taiping defeat by combined Qing and foreign
  troops
• Gentry sided with government regional armies had
  European weapons
• Taipings defeated in 1864 the war claimed twenty
  to thirty million lives
• Reform frustrated
• The Self-Strengthening Movement (1860-1895)
• Blended Chinese cultural traditions with European
  industrial technology
• Built shipyards, railroads, weapon industries,
  steel foundries, academies
• Not enough industry to make a significant change
• Powerful empress dowager Cixi opposed changes
• The hundred-days reforms (1898)

29
JAPAN SHOGUN TO EMPEROR

• Crisis and reform in early nineteenth century
• Emperor isolated, secluded shogun military
  dictator
• Centralized bureaucracy alliances with feudal
  lords
• Japan not unaware of what was going on in wider
  world
• Dutch allowed to visit Japan at Nagasaki once a
  year
• Crisis
• Crop failure, high taxes on agriculture, rising
  rice prices
• All led to protests and rebellions
• Reforms and ideas conflict
• Government Neo-Confucian conservative reforms
• Dutch Learning Support western studies, reforms,
  working with west anti-Chinese
• National Studies praised Japanese traditions,
  emperor, Shinto led to ultranationalism
• Foreign pressure on Japan
• European wanted her to reverse long-standing
  closed door policy
• Europeans wanted to trade, wanted safe ports for
  whaling fleets
• 1844 requests by British, French, U.S. for the
  right of entry rebuffed
• 1853
• U.S. Commodore Perry sailed U.S. fleet to Tokyo
  Bay, demanded entry
• Japan forced to accept unequal treaties with
  U.S., other western countries

30
JAPAN MEIJI ERA

• Meiji government welcomed foreign expertise
• Fukuzawa Yukichi studied western constitutions
  and education
• Ito Hirobumi helped build Japanese constitutional
  government
• Social Revolution 1873 - 1876
• Abolition of the feudal order essential to new
  government
• Daimyo and samurai lost status, privileges class
  abolished
• Samurai issued bonds to pay for loss, but
  inflation led to impoverishment
• Samurai rebelled but the new national conscript
  army put rebellion down
• Some went into business, created western-style
  companies (Mitsubishi)
• Districts reorganized to break up old feudal
  domains
• Emperor created new nobility based on English
  style House of Peers
• Revamping tax system
• Converted grain taxes to a fixed money tax more
  reliable income for state
• Assessed taxes on potential productivity of
  arable land
• Constitutional government, the emperor's "gift"
  to the people in 1889
• Emperor remained supreme, limited the rights of
  the people
• Less than 5 percent of adult males could vote
• Legislature, the Diet, was an opportunity for
  debate and dissent but limited powers
• Remodeling the economy and infrastructure

31
AFRICA

• Africa 1750 1850
• North Africa nominally part of the Ottoman Empire
• Sudan, Sahel Africa had most powerful, developed
  states
• West Africa forest kingdoms part of the Atlantic
  slave trade
• East Africa dominated by native kingdoms, Swahili
  trading states
• South Africa population dispersal, state
  building of the Ngoni
• Few European possessions in Africa
• Atlantic (not Islamic) slave trade ended in early
  19th century
• Age of Exploration leads to Imperialism
• Europeans explore Africa, developed interest in
  Africa
• Permitted by technology
• Transportation, weaponry made it easy
• Medicines made it possible
• Africa was the center, objective of imperialism
• Africa was partitioned between Europeans
• Only Ethiopia and Liberia remained independent
• Infrastructures and Changes
• Political
• Colonial powers ignored indigenous peoples almost
  totally

32
MAPPING AFRICA, 1830
33
AFRICA 1914
34
RUSSIA EMPIRE UNDER PRESSURE

• Post-1812
• Great concern with defense, liberal ideas as
  threat to old order
• Government introduced reforms to improve
  bureaucracy
• Made an alliance with the conservative powers of
  Europe to maintain order
• December Uprising 1825
• Death of Alexander I prompted some
  western-oriented officers to rebel
• Suppressed mercilessly by new tsar
• Nicholas I
• Orthodoxy, autocracy and nationality
• State became very repressive, secret police
• Policeman of Europe used army to suppress
  revolutions
• Suppressed rebellion in Poland
• Policy of foreign wars to divert domestic
  problems
• Serfdom Issue
• Russia needed work force in order to industrial
• Serfdom not efficient
• Lack of workers in cities an obstacle to economic
  development
• Gap between western, eastern Europe economic
  systems

35
RUSSIAN REPRESSION MARXISM

• Cycles of protest and repression
• Peasants
• Often landless, no political power
• Frustrated by lack of meaningful reform
• Peasant uprisings become more common than serf as
  frustration heightened
• Population increased as potato introduced,
  increasing pressures on society
• Social Protest
• Antigovernment protest and revolutionary activity
  increased in 1870s
• Middle Class, some aristocrats advocated rights,
  political representation
• Radical Intelligentsia advocated socialism and
  anarchism, recruited in countryside
• Repression by tsarist authorities secret police,
  censorship
• Russification sparked ethnic nationalism,
  attacks on Jews tolerated
• Terrorism emerges as a tool of opposition
• Radicals wanted solution to social issue from a
  Russian perspective
• Young intellectuals went directly to the peasants
• Most opposed westernization, autocracy,
  capitalism
• Many became peasant anarchists
• Alexander II, the reforming tsar, assassinated by
  a bomb in 1881
• Nicholas II (1894-1917), more oppressive,
  conservative ruler

36
MARXISMWorkerswill stage arevolution and
overthrowcapitalism, stateLENINISMWill only
succeed withthe leadership of an elitegroup
ofrevolutionaries
37
RUSSIAN REVOLUTION OF 1905

• Russian Revolution of 1905
• Military defeat, humiliation in Russo-Japanese
  War was cause
• Russia always diverted domestic tension by short,
  successful wars
• In 1870s, 1880s had expanded against Ottoman
  Empire
• Massive protests followed news of defeat
• Workers mounted general strikes in St.
  Petersburg, Moscow
• Peasant insurrections in countryside against
  landlords
• Police repressions ineffective, just upset people
• Bloody Sunday massacre
• Poor workers of St. Petersburg march to palace to
  ask tsar for help
• Unarmed workers shot down by government troops
• Peasants seized landlords' property, killed
  landlords
• Workers formed soviets (worker councils) in
  cities, factories
• Workers tended towards non-Marxist socialists
  Marxists marginalized
• Sought to achieve ends without full scale
  revolution
• A Fizzled Revolution
• Tsar forced to accept elected legislature, the
  Duma
• Many parties elected with conflicting interests
• Unable, unwilling to cooperate

38
A MULTINATIONAL EMPIRE

• Austria 1750 1814
• A collection of states ruled by the Hapsburg
  family who were also the Holy Roman Emperors
• The Holy Roman Empire was neither holy, nor Roman
  nor an empire
• No common government, few common institutions
  (save Catholicism)
• Austria in 1815 1860
• One of the victors against Napoleon extremely
  conservative and reactionary
• The weakest, most threatened of Europes great
  powers
• Prime Minister Metternich dominated German
  Confederation, Italy
• Used force, coercion to prevent German, Italian
  nationalism
• Opposed nationalism, liberalism, democracy
• 1848 Revolution nearly destroyed state
• Russia intervened to suppress revolutions
• Austria then intervened in Germany, Italy to
  suppress revolutions
• Prussia fights to isolate Austria, unify Germany
  w/o Austria
• Austria in 1866 1870
• Defeated in 1858 by French-Sardinian Alliance
  1866 by Prussia
• Driven from German Confederation, Italy
• Sees nationalism, German unification triumph
  under rival Prussia
• Sees Italy united under Sardinia Papal states
  erased

39
MAP OF CONFUSION
40
NATIONALISM IMPERIALISM

• Nationalism heavily involved in imperialism
• Source of national pride, strength to acquire
  colonies
• Non-Westerners soon learned to be nationalist
• Many studied in Western schools, learned western
  knowledge to get ahead
• Many defined their sense of nation as response to
  imperialism
• India
• Two types of state-structures in India
• Princely States States ruled by Indian princes,
  assisted by British officials
• British possessions States ruled directly by
  British
• Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833), "father of modern
  India"
• Sought an Indian society based on European
  science and traditional Hinduism
• Used press to mobilize educated Hindus and
  advance reform
• The Indian National Congress, founded 1885
• Educated Indians met, with British approval, to
  discuss public affairs
• Congress aired grievances about colonial rule,
  sought Indian self-rule
• 1906, All-India Muslim League
• Formed to advance interests of Indian Muslims
• Limited reform, 1909
• Wealthy Indians could elect representatives to
  local councils

41
NATIONALIST RIVALRIES

• Nationalism spread by the French Revolution and
  Napoleonic Wars
• Self-determination each ethnic group had a right
  to a sovereign state
• Concept was ignored or opposed by dynastic powers
  
• Considerable nationalistic tensions in Ottoman,
  Hapsburg, and Russian empires
• Slavic nationalism in the Balkans
• Stressed kinship of all Slavic peoples
• Pan-Slavism was a movement to unite all Slavs
  under the Russian tsar
• Ottoman empire shrank as first Greece, then
  others, gained independence
• Serbs of Austria-Hungary sought unification with
  independent Serbia
• Russians promoted Pan-Slavism in
  Austria-Hungarian empire
• Germany backed Austria-Hungary to fight ethnic
  nationalism
• The naval race between Germany and Britain
  increased tensions
• Germany's rapid industrialization threatened
  British economic predominance
• Both states built huge iron battleships, called
  dreadnoughts
• Colonial disputes of the late nineteenth century
• Germany unified in 1871 came late to the
  colonial race
• German resentment and antagonism toward both
  France and Britain
• France and Germany nearly fought over Morocco in
  1905
• Balkan wars (1912-13) further strained European
  diplomatic relations

42
IRANIAN REVOLUTION OF 1905-1911

• Causes
• Intellectuals feel that to save Iran they would
  have to limit Shahs power
• Encroachment by Russians, British on Iranian
  territory upset Iranians
• Initiated by the Majilis or Iranian Parliament
• 1905 A year of demonstrations and strikes
• Parliamentarians tended to be educated,
  merchants, clerics, young
• Introduced the constitutional concept of
  government
• People were sovereign and their representatives
  were delegated to enact the laws
• Old Shah abdicates, new shah accepts
  constitutional limitations
• 1906
• Constitutionalists failed to protect victory
  against domestic, international threats
• Trade Russian influence for British control
• Took at face value Mohammed Ali Shah's pledges to
  respect constitution
• 1907-1908
• UK, Russia prepare to divide Iran into spheres
  of influence
• Mohammed Ali Shah used opportunity to overthrow
  constitution
• Shah attempts to kill constitutionalists, forced
  to abdicate, flees
• Spheres of influence
• Anglo-Russian convention signed on August 31,
  1907

43
MEXICAN REVOLUTION 1911- 1920

• The Revolution (1910-1920)
• Middle class joins peasants, workers overthrow
  Diaz
• Class Factions
• 1910-1914 all rebels vs. Diaz and Huerta
• 1914-20 Carranza, Obregon vs. Zapata, Villa
• Regional Revolutions North, South, Yucatan
• Course of the Revolution
• Liberal Middle Class Leaders
• Francisco Madero rules at first
• Seeks middle class constitutional democracy
• Opposes land reform landless peasants attack
  large landowners
• Peasant armies win pitched battles against
  government troops
• General Huerta, army side with landowners, kills
  Madero
• Venustiano Carranza
• Organizes coalition with Villa, Zapata, Obregon
• US troops sent by Wilson support Carranza, Huerta
  resigns
• Peasant, Common Rebels
• Pancho Villa led northern rebels, especially
  landless peasants
• Emiliano Zapata initiates land reform in the
  Southern areas he controls

44
CHINESE REVOLUTION

• Reform Fails
• Chinese elites unwilling, unable to reform
• Boxer Rebellion shows weakness of state,
  humiliating to Chinese
• Chinese leaders
• Leaders educated abroad, especially Japan, US
• Sun Yat-sen
• Founds United League in Tokyo using Chinese
  foreign funds
• Wins support of many military officers, foreign
  exiles
• Suns Three Principles of the People
• Nationalism Overthrow Manchus, end foreign
  hegemony
• Democracy Popularly elected republican form of
  government
• People's Livelihood help people, regulate means
  of production, land
• 1911 Revolution broke out in Hubei
• Local army rebellion followed by many armies
• Joined by United League members
• 2/3 of provinces join rebels
• 1912
• Last Emperor abdicates
• Sun Yat-sen inaugurated as first president