Introduction to Development Studies

1
Introduction to Development Studies

• Jaro Julkunen
• Mondays Lecture Hall XV at 10-12
• (except Mo 9.10. Lecture Hall XIV at 14-16)
• Thursdays Lecture Hall XIV at 12-14

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Development Studies

• research field examining problems in the
  developing countries
• comparative focus on international development of
  human societies
• multi-discliplinary social science primary
  normative object on social, political and
  economic issues
• research interest of the post-WWII world (Cold
  War)
• motivated by underdevelopment in the decolonizing
  Third World
• knowledge to guide development interventions,
  later problematizing also the intervention itself
• c.f. research on less developed regions
  (sociology economy)

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Course Description

• Basic information is provided on the situation
  of the developing countries in an international
  context, from the perspectives of social and
  political development. Central theories and
  explanatory models referring to the international
  development problem are also presented.
• No prerequisite studies are presumed.

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Course Schedule

• 7.9. Conceptualization of International
  Development
• 11.9. Geographies and Actors of Development
• 14.9. Comparative Historical Modernization
• 18.9. Structural Functionalist Modernization
• 21.9. Welfare State Reformism
• 25.9. Dependencia, Marxism and World Systems
• 28.10. Basic Needs and Alternative Development
• 2.10. Green and Feminist Development
• 5.10. Anti-Development
• 9.10. Conclusion

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Social Development Postulate

• We evaluate that certain social, economic and
  political conditions and systems are more
  developed than others.

6
Dimensions of Development

• 1. indicators and symbols of development
• 2. causal relationships, rules and methods
  constituting knowledge
• 3. historical context
• 4. political agenda-setting

7
Conceptual Surroundings of Development

• Synonym/hyponym for change
• - usually considered as a positive change,
  beneficial alteration, achievement of a better
  (material) life
• - (but also cancer develops)
• Development derives from the word of uncovering
  or unfolding (old French des-envolupper)
• Kehitys/utveckling/entwicklung/evolution derive
  from the image of the opening circle

8
The Conceptual Schema

• goal
  path source

9
Other parallel concepts

• progress, advancement, growth
• Progress derives from the idea of moving on,
  advancing (Lat. pro gredi, c.f. advancement)
• Progress has a connotation of structural changes
  which are based on superindividual factors
• Development is more consciously accomplished
  change
• Metaphor of organic growth is a prototype of
  cyclic development (linear growth omits the
  decline)

10
Counterconcepts

• Opposite of change
• unchangeability, undevelopment and stagnation
• Change, but to wrong direction
• decay, degeneration, atrophy, decline,
  regression, retrogradiation and recession
• Insufficient degree of change
• underdevelopment
• Diachronic distance from the significant center
• primitiveness
• Synchronic distance from the significant center
• backwardness

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Structure of the Concept

• a) Source
• - progress transhistorical, consciously exogene
  (unintentional), 'natural'
• - development human, consciously endogene
  (intentional), 'cultural'
• b) Path
• - directionality linear/cyclic,
  progression/regression
• - cumulativity knowledge of previous
  generations as a basis of development/ alienation
  as a basis of decline
• - irreversebility
• c) Goal
• - certain social system (homogenisation/pluralisa
  tion)
• - growth of virtues (happiness, freedom,
  equality, responsibility)
• - perfection

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Basis on Comparison
13
Dimensions of Development

• 1. indicators and symbols of development
• 2. causal relationships, rules and methods
  constituting knowledge
• 3. historical context
• 4. political agenda-setting

14
1. Historical Context

• Development
• makes sense only in the realization of history
• is not, however, reduced to history
• is more abstract and theoretical than history
  (past, history, development)
• is manifested in histories (plural)
• is considered as a reaction to problems

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Historical context Narratives of Development
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2. Epistemology of Development

• Construction of a general theory/ Study of a
  particular case
• Understanding the integration of facts and values
• Methodological realism/ relativism
• Moral realism/ relativism

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2. Causality of Development

• Physical Environment
• Climate
• Resources
• Communication
• Social Environment
• Social systems and their mechanisms
• Heredity
• Intelligence

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3. Components and Indicators (examples)

• Health
• Economic resources
• Education
• Social integration
• Housing
• Security
• Recreation
• Political resources

• - physical abilites, illnesses,doctor
• income, wealth, property
• years of education
• attachments and contacts
• space, nr of persons/room
• exposure of violence/theft
• leisure pursuits, theatres
• voting, memberships

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4. Political Agenda-Setting

• different definitions and focuses highlight
  different evaluations, which
• privilege particular political interests or
  cultural preferences and
• set particular policy implications and future
  projects

20
Making of the Present World of Development

• Development thinking is a general phenomenon, but
  developmentalism was formed in certain conditions
• Distinctively Western
• Western roots?
• Narratives of decline
• But, Renaissance, Reformation, Explorations

21
Development theories

• development theories arise to explain the
  changing Western societies
• 'unchanging' non-Western societies were used as
  comparative resources in explaining modernity

22
Modernization

• 1) development is inherent in society
• - from the dichotomy order/change to
  order-in-change
• 2) development is dimensional
• - it tends to proceed towards the modern state
  along a common linear path
• 3) making of the division traditional/modern
• 4) development appears as growth and often
  proceeds as necessary stages
• 5) economic, social and political changes are
  integrated and interdependent
• 6) the progress od underdeveloped countries can
  be accelerated through contact with developed
  ones

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Developmentalism

• The West has the ability and the responsibility
  to promote development in the underdeveloped
  areas
• Premises for the Western developmentalist thought
• - technology
• - socio-economic changes
• - religious disruptions
• - rise of individualism
• - breaking-up of the idea of future
• Religion of modernity (Rist)
• - secularisation
• - social beliefs (human rights, development,
  knowledge)

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Developmentalist Ideas

• The Enlightenment
• rationalization, civilization, liberation,
  freedom, truth
• Positivism
• universalism, division of ethics out of knowledge
• Economic Thought
• capitalism, industrialism
• Cultural and Social Evolutionism
• comparison of one society (internal natural laws)
• polymorphism, survival of the fittest, general
  history
• Diffusionism
• influence analysis (natural laws in the spread of
  winning phenomena)
• cultural contacts
• Imperialism

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Imperialism

• The enlargement of the international power of the
  government to be as great as possible
• Imperialism as the reason for colonialist
  policies and practices

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Motives for Imperialism

• commercial, economic interests
• - natural resources, markets, dead end of
  capitalist national space
• interests of social policy
• - poor, outcasts and prisoners
• interests of power politics
• - European hegemonic struggle, formation of a
  social order
• sociopsychological interests
• - preservation of social structure by warrior
  aristocracy
• (devil and elite theories)
• ideological interests
• - evangelization, civilization philantrophy,
  solidarity, matter of duty

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Critiques of Imperialism

• Liberalist critique
• bias and malfunction in a capitalist system,
• protectionist operation against free trade,
• cause of huge warfare and administrative costs,
• cause of monopolization
• Marxist critique
• interest of capitalists (allow extra time for
  capitalist phase)
• Nationalist critique
• political focus on wrong direction
• Cultural critique
• change of justified social conditions, cultural
  and political integrity

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The Idea of Imperial/International Control

• trusteeship property to be placed in the hands
  of trustees who would be chosen on the basis of
  their capacity to decide where and how societys
  resources should be invested
• education civilization
• social system primary health care

29
International Economic Development

• starting-point global economic imbalance
• moral interest responsibilities and rights
  of both the rich and the poor
• focus problem-solving quarters and
  mechanisms, availability of growth
  factors and access to them

30
Postwar Global System

• Realization of the international underdevelopment
  problem
• focus change civilization gt economic growth
• hegemonic change in the international politics
• Ideological outlinings of the world system
• Western Liberal Democracy Doctrine
• Socialist Revolutionary Doctrine
• Non-alignment Doctrine

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Postwar Developmentalist Actors

• States
• International Economic Communities
• Bretton Woods Institutions
• Non-Governmental Organizations
• Multi-National Corporations

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Bretton Woods Institutions

• World Bank
• International Monetary Fund (IMF)
• International Trade Organization (ITO)/ General
  Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)/ World
  Trade Organization (WTO)
• United Nations (UN)

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Western Liberal Democracy Doctrine

• reconstruction of distroyed economies and
  formation of new ones (Marshall Plan, UN, Bretton
  Woods)
• abstaining of totalitarism (communism, national
  socialism)
• building of better life standards to
  underdeveloped countries with technical and
  economic knowledge
• adapting social development assistance from
  closed colonial system to open international
  context
• New active US foreign policy (Truman doctrine)
• End of Ideology

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Third World

• bringing off of the bipolar world from the
  perspective of global power structure
• forming of a political coalition between
  underdeveloped countries in order to gain
  self-sufficiency
• ending condemnation of (neo-)colonialism, growing
  interest on issues of global economy
• introduction of the term Third World as a symbol
  of these common objectives
• Bandung Conference 1955
• Non-Aligned Movement/Beograd 1961
• no unifying elements (political, economic,
  religious)

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Categorization of the World

• Encapsulating the world in categories is the only
  way for understanding it
• Every framework is an abstraction which
• serves the accessibility of the complex reality
• is partial and not fair for the complex reality

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Groupings of the World (part I)

• 1) One World
• one global system
• harmonious
• under tension
• 2) Two Worlds
• global system as bivaricate
• center/periphery, North/South, developed/developin
  g, East/West, episteme/techne, modern/traditional,
  rich/poor, Orient/Occident, Jihad/McWorld
• geographically locatable or structurally divising
• 3) Three Worlds
• Cold War political division with two superpowers
  and the non-aligned
• center/semiperiphery/periphery
• planned (undeveloped) economy / transition
  economy / free (developed) market

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Groupings of the World (part II)

• 4) Civilizations (over 5, under 10)
• culturally segmented world system
• 5) About 180 States
• states the only important actors in world affairs
• 6) Chaos
• breakdown of governmental rule, anarchy,
  disrupting and failing states, undemocratic power
  systems

38
Visualization of Global Space

• Developmental structuring of the globe according
  to the paradigm
• Recycling of imagination to new theoretical
  contexts
• time into space
• civilizational geopolitics
• search for cultural origins (source-path-goal)
• Development discourse in maps

39
Modernization Theories

• base on theories of development economics
• ideal of studying societal phenomena according to
  methodologies similar to natural sciences
• Comparative historical modernization theories
• Functionalist and macrobehaviorist modernization
  theories

40
Comparative historical modernization theories

• identification of universal developmental phases
• generality in particular processes of change
• aim at combining versatile factors of explanation
  (economic, psychological, political etc.)
• criticized of the speculativity theoretical
  basis not convincing empiricists
• Cyril E. Black, S.N. Eisenstadt, Seymor Martin
  Lipset, Barrington Moore jr.
• Example Walter W. Rostow Stages of Economic
  Growth (1960)

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Walter W. Rostow Stages of Economic Growth (1960)

• macroeconomic theory to direct investment in
  order to increase per capita income
• problem of relating economic to social and
  political forces
• how the West had become advanced while other
  areas of the world had not
• a non-communist manifesto idealist theory to
  challenge Marx

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Walter W. Rostow Stages of Economic Growth (1960)

• First Stage Traditional society
• static society
• fatalist worldview (life, environment)
• person-depended power structures (kinship
  relations)
• societal resources in agriculture
• undeveloped sciences and technologies (Newton as
  a symbol)
• no directional changes in life standards

43
Walter W. Rostow Stages of Economic Growth (1960)

• Second Stage Preconditions for take-off
• a) freeborn model
• - internal stimuli
• - cultural heterogeneity
• - no restricting feudal/imperial system
• - no threat from outside
• - created mainly out of Britain
• - natural, rapid climb to modernity because of
  the set of ideas of individualism, democracy and
  economic opportuniyty
• b) basic model
• - threat of expansion of more developed countries
• - traditional order under challenging pressure

44
Walter W. Rostow Stages of Economic Growth (1960)

• Second Stage Preconditions for take-off
• social understanding for the need of continuous
  growth and actualisation of scientific
  innovations
• rise of new virtues and aims
• national prestige
• higher economic gains
• general welfare
• better life standards for new generations
• rise of capable entrepreneurship
• rise of investments, especially on transport and
  means of conveyance

45
Walter W. Rostow Stages of Economic Growth (1960)

• Second Stage Preconditions for take-off
• social framework still limited
• importance of the state sector (nation-state
  cooperatives contra traditional rule)
• continuous economic growth not a normal state yet
  (promoters still a minority)
• industry not wide enough to satisfy the needs of
  balanced foreign trade
• demonstrational effect promotion of
  modernisation with professional and political
  coalitions

46
Walter W. Rostow Stages of Economic Growth (1960)

• Third Stage Take-Off
• dividing line (decade or two) forming a modern
  society
• usually a clear stimulus in which the society
  responds by turning into ideas of modernisation
• political power to forces that promote continuous
  economic growth
• economic growth becomes a normal state and there
  are no obstacles for it even though the
  industrial base still narrow

47
Walter W. Rostow Stages of Economic Growth (1960)

• Third Stage Take-Off
• industry based on natural resources takes the
  lead (harpoon)
• new branches of industry are expanding rapidly
• profits are used to establish new production
  plants
• demand for industrial working power gt
  urbanization and commercialization of agriculture
• birth rates begin to decline

48
Walter W. Rostow Stages of Economic Growth (1960)

• Fourth Stage Maturing
• 40-60 years period of growth expanding to every
  economic sector
• profits rise faster than population grows
• 10-20 of national product can be invested
• mechanism of production developes with new
  branches of industry that overtake the old ones
  which are losing their importance

49
Walter W. Rostow Stages of Economic Growth (1960)

• Fourth Stage Maturing
• production of commodities that were imported
  earlier, new import needs and export products
• technical processes more sophisticated (rise of
  degree of processing)
• national economy capable of capitalizing modern
  technology in most of its investments
• dependence on foreign trade links is dictated by
  economic calculations and political priorities,
  not by technical and institutional necessities

50
Walter W. Rostow Stages of Economic Growth (1960)

• Fifth Stage Mass Consumption Society
• sectors of consumer durables and service take the
  lead
• real income rises so that most of the people are
  able to consume also other products than the
  necessary
• official employees to a central part in the
  structure of working power

51
Walter W. Rostow Stages of Economic Growth (1960)

• Fifth Stage Mass Consumption Society
• technical development starts to lose the prima
  facie value
• continuous growth of state institutions
  investments on social welfare and security
  purposes
• crystallizing in a welfare society

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Structural Modernization

• Structural Functionalism
• research focus functions of (parts of) social
  structures from the viewpoint of compound system
  functionality meaningful and non-meaningful
  structures
• naturally and unobstructed functioning society is
  a stabile totality where different sectors
  dependend from each other
• counterpoint for evolutionist economics

53
Structural Modernization

• needs met by structures that are
  institutionalizations of natural functions
• adequacy of methods of dealing with environment
• societys adaptive capacity (internal/external)
• differentiation, specialization, division to
  better performance of societys primary function

54
Structural Modernization

• Structural Functionalism
• combination of naturalism and rationalism
• both primitive and developed social systems were
  seen as functional (organizations)
• change is an effort to eliminate social
  dysfunctions
• Talcott Parsons, Marion Levy, Gabriel Almond,
  David Apter, Fred Riggs

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Structural Moderniztion

• Modernization spread effects
• sociospatial organization social mobility,
  flexibility, urbanization, education
• political organization democracy, weakening of
  traditional power structures
• cultural organization secularization,
  differentiation (cultural/value systems)
• psychological organization innovative
  personalities, need for achievement

56
Structural Modernization

• Psychocultural theories (macro-behaviorism)
• research focus behavioral grounds for a dynamic
  state (variable relations), social and political
  processes
• correlations and causal explanations
• universality of modernization
• Everett Hagen, Daniel Lerner, Alex Inkeles

57
Daniel Lerner (1958) The Passing of Traditional
Society

• objective 1 developing of methodologies for
  studies on phenomena of social psychology in
  modernization process
• objective 2 presenting of primary
  characteristics of modern state and the
  processual nature of modernization

58
Daniel Lerner (1958) The Passing of Traditional
Society

• Characteristics of a modern state
• urbanisation (population living in gt50000 towns
  percentage of total population)
• literacy (percentage of literates of total
  population)
• voting (voter percentage of total population in
  national elections)
• media participation (percentage of tot.pop. of
  those buying newspapers, owning radios, going to
  movies)

59
Daniel Lerner (1958) The Passing of Traditional
Society

• Correlations for example literacy/media
  participation
• Causal explanation the literacy rate rocketed
  after urbanisation rate exceeded 10 ? media
  participation ? other participatory institutions
  (especially voting)

60
Daniel Lerner (1958) The Passing of Traditional
Society

• Modernization process
• modern society is dynamic and participatory
• the process towards modernization is unilinear,
  stages follow each other with autonomic
  historical logic of same mechanisms
• the moving forces of modernization process are
  urbanization and new information (orbit of desire
  and horizons of expectations)
• modernizing individuals and institutions are in a
  strong system relationship of dependency

61
Daniel Lerner (1958) The Passing of Traditional
Society

• Modernization process
• life style non-participation ? participatory
• personality static ? mobile
• emotional identification unability ? empathy
• identity structure static ? dynamic

62
Karl W. Deutsch (1961) Social Mobilization and
Political Development

• Modern nationality is constructed from a double
  process of social mobilization and cultural
  assimilation
• Nation building is a balancing of these
  processes

63
Karl W. Deutsch (1961) Social Mobilization and
Political Development

• Social mobilization
• social, economic and technological development
  makes people leave their traditional agrarian
  environments to be mobilized for more intensive
  communication
• process by which old commitments are eroded or
  broken and people become available for new
  patterns of behaviour

64
Karl W. Deutsch (1961) Social Mobilization and
Political Development

• Cultural assimilation
• information given in the modernization process is
  accepted and thus orientation towards change
  prevails over traditional group affliations
• melting pot to modernity (not cultural mosaic)

65
Reasons for failings of modernization

• Lerner (1958)
• when an occational sector (for example
  urbanisation) grows without mutual growth of
  other sectors, the result is unfavourable
  imbalance of modernization
• modernization is both technical process but
  especially a change of ideology and a way of life
  (the mental change spreads over a long period)
• Deutsch (1961)
• imbalance of the double process (lack of cultural
  assimilation ? reactive ethnic nationalism)

66
Samuel P. Huntington (1968) Political Order in
Changing Societies

• research questions
• what makes the collapse of social/political
  development?
• why changes tend not to go like modernization
  theories predict?
• where revolutions come from and why?

67
Samuel P. Huntington (1968) Political Order in
Changing Societies

• Comparative study of revolutions
• Starting-point
• the poorest countries were relatively stable, but
  those a countries having bit of affluence were
  explosive
• Argument
• ? the reason for revolutions was not on poverty
  but on the imbalanced modernization process

68
Samuel P. Huntington (1968) Political Order in
Changing Societies

• Reasoning (causality)
• - social mobilization brings on activity and
  horizons of expectations
• - incapable government can not take advantage of
  the increased activity
• - activity and expectations turn into a
  radicalizing opposition
• - the relatively strong inequality of economic
  growth that is connected the first stages of
  modernization amplifies the reactions (atmosphere
  of instability)

69
Samuel P. Huntington (1968) Political Order in
Changing Societies

• Political circumstances after social mobilization
  depends on the rate of institutionalization
  closely institutionalized politics connects the
  new citizens to existing sectors of activity ?
  strong civil society
• Civil society can be democratic or totalitarian
• Revolutions rise from frustrated alienation of
  middle-class (most expectations, knowledge-based
  opposition towards status quo)

70
Samuel P. Huntington (1968) Political Order in
Changing Societies

• social mobilization
• 1. social frustration
• economic development
• social frustration
• 2. political participation
• mobility possibitilies
• political participation
• 3. political instability
• political institutionalization

71
Growing Inequality

• Liberalist Modernization
• in the first stages of modernization, the
  forerunners get rich
• then the wealth starts to trickle down to the
  whole society
• Critique
• what if the increase of inequalities is
  cumulative, not a phase?

72
Cumulative Causation

• economic development is a process of circular and
  cumulative causation which tends to award its
  favours to those who are already well endowed and
  even to thwart the efforts of those who happen to
  live in regions that are lagging behind (Myrdal)
• variables interlocked
• the secondary changes support the first change
• once triggered by a change the growth process is
  cumulative

73
Cumulativity of growth
74
Cumulative causation

• Spread effect growth in one region promotes
  growth in another region
• Backwash effect one region expands at the
  expense of another region
• movement of capital is negative and the region
  becomes poorer (backwash effect is stronger than
  spread or trickle down effect)

75
Backwash Analysis

• A new dynamic branch of industry absorbs
  resources from other sectors of production and
  from geographic peripheries (cf. Rostows harpoon
  effect)
• This dynamic branch makes money, but the wealth
  spills abroad (to industrialised countries)

76
Backwash Analysis

• Universal direction of capital stream
  (inferior?dominant, periphery?centre,
  underprivileged?privileged, poor?rich)
• The trading instruments of a poor country become
  all along more unfavourable

77
The Vicious Circle of Poverty
78
Welfare State Reformism

• Welfare state as a response to modernization
• Causes of underdevelopment in evil social
  environment (not in evil individuals)
• Welfare policies motivated by altruism and
  solidarity
• Belief in social engineering, democratic social
  reform and state interventionism
• Development as social insurance
• Folkhemmet Sverige

79
Keynesian causality

• Unemployment makes people passive
• Poverty is caused by economic passivity and
  failings of production (cf. Liberalism heavy and
  inflexible government machinery)
• Markets fail ? active economic policy by state

80
Tools to eradicate poverty

• Public assistance as an activity injection
• Social policy a national tool, development aid an
  international tool
• Public assistance enables consumption (the main
  method to eradicate poverty)
• Mobilization of the poor to promote economic
  growth with state intervention
• Economic and social equalization by
  redistribution "the richest 90 support the
  poorest 90"

81
International social policy

• global security
• economic efficiency
• equality
• solidarity
• human rights in form of basic needs

82
International social policy

• Development cooperation, technical aid
• International agreement system, guidelines and
  organisations of surveillance (ILO, WHO, FAO, UN
  et al.)
• Objectives protection of labour force, promotion
  of peace and mutual understanding, removal of
  biases in international economy

83
Dependency

• UN Economic Commission for Latin America
  (ECLA/CEPAL)
• promoting economic growth
• ECLA manifesto 1950 explanation for
  underdevelopment
• a) laissez faire economic policies
• biased export orientation
• underdeveloped internal market network
• weak governmental control of economy
• b) structure of the world trade system
• factors of economic problems beyond the reach of
  local governments
• no local instruments for preventing economic
  threats (depression)
• preconditions for economic growth are not
  universal
• realization of the separate economic regularities
  of the industrialized countries and the
  underdeveloped countries
• realization of the geography of poverty

84
Global Structures

• Economic development of a state in terms of the
  external influences
• Subjection of a certain economy by the expansion
  of another economy
• External forces are determining the economic
  activities within a dependent state
• Global inequality becomes deeper, because the
  international interaction intensifies the
  existing patterns
• ? Global division of labour poverty and
  underdevelopment to the global proletariat
• Division has become fixed

85
Constructed Underdevelopment

• Underdevelopment (decline)
• not an original condition, but a product of
  Capitalism and economic imperialism
  (underdeveloped ? behind)
• was brought about by external reasons, namely the
  mechanisms of Capitalism
• is another side of the coin development of the
  industrialized countries is made of the
  underdevelopment of the rest
• Andre Gunder Frank
• Europe did not discover the underdeveloped
  countries, it created them
• the more natural resources for exploitation a
  region had when the capitalist system unrolled,
  the poorer and more underdeveloped it is today

86
Centre and Periphery

• Capitalism produces inevitably a divided class
  society, which expands to global scale
• Vulgar dependecia global geographic centre and
  periphery
• Structural dependecia centre has its foothold on
  regionally peripheric areas
• Common characters of the periphery (Samir Amin)
• domination of agrarian capitalism
• local merchant bourgoisie controlling foreign
  capital
• bureucratic social system controlled by urban
  bourgoisie
• a vast proletarian class of poor peasants,
  marginally empowered workers, and unemployed
  urban dwellers

87
Indicators of Poverty Eradication

• The tools that were used in the centre can not be
  used in the periphery
• Emphasis on the economic activity that benefits
  the whole population
• 1. Moderate social indicators education, life
  expectancy, health care, infant mortality etc.
• 2. Marxist/Maoist indicators GDP, money flows

88
1. Moderate Dependencia Keynesian Reforms

• state control to economy
• allowing of protectionist instruments for
  periphery and demolition of those of
  industrialised countries
• creating needs for Latin American, African and
  Asian internal markets for gaining self-reliancy
• emphasis on broadly-based industrialization,
  regulation and dismantling of traditional
  landowning conditions
• ending of imitation of Western models (economy,
  sciences, arts)
• Raúl Prebisch (ECLA), Gunnar Myrdal

89
2. Radical DependenciaMarxist Solutions

• Marxist stages of development
• Imperialism as the last phase of Capitalism
• Governments take whatever steps are necessary to
  protect their/private economic interests
• Lenin Imperialist exploitation allows affluence
  for developed world workers (peace at home)
• Solutions
• International commitment to communism by the
  truly immiserated proletariat of the
  underdeveloped countries
• Revolution of the world trade structure

90
Maoist Dependency

• Peasants become more important for the world
  revolution than the intellectuals or urban
  workers
• The concept of class as an attribute of nations
  capitalist Finland, proletarian China
• Power is taken from the capitalist countries by
  cutting off the supply of cheap labour and
  resources ? de-linking (Amin)

91
Application of the dependency argument Case of
Tanzania

• independency and establishing of a federal sate
  of Tanganyika and Zanzibar, Tanzania (early
  1960s)
• Arusha Declaration 1967 self-reliance and
  African socialism
• cutting off of the economic dependency by
  accession to the Third World (especially China)
• socialization of banks and important companies
• cultural revolution 1969 outlawing imitations of
  the European culture
• shrinking confidence on economic and political
  collaboration (growing apart from Pan-African,
  East African and finally Third World linkages) ?
  isolation
• change of politics 1985 acceptance of the WB/IMF
  structural adjustment demands, abandonment of the
  orthodox African socialism

92
World-System Theory (WST)

• a macrosociological theory of international
  dependence (Marxist theories, Annales school of
  historical research, emphasis on economy)
• developing unit world as an organism
• research interest origins and dynamics of the
  capitalist world economy as a total social
  system, ongoing transition to socialism
• model of explanation historical stages of
  development, but different than those of
  modernization theory
• criticism to modernization theory nation-state
  level, single path evolution, ahistorical
  research,
• Immanuel Wallerstein

93
World Systems

• 1. Mini Systems
• in hunter and gathering or extremely simple
  agricultural societies
• complete division of labor
• single, uniform cultural framework
• kinship as a structuring factor
• exchange economy (barter)

94
World Systems

• 2. World Empires
• universal homogenization of division of labor
• payment of tribute as protection cost (mini
  system ? part of world empire)
• politically united systems
• examples Rome, Egypt, China

95
World Systems

• 3. World Economies
• the present capitalist system is the first world
  economy
• plurality of political systems support the world
  economy
• production mainly for markets

96
Core/ Semiperiphery /Periphery

• World economy develops a flourishing core
• For its economic expansion the core needs surplus
  from the peripheries
• Semiperiphery
• a buffer zone that deflects the revolutionary
  activity of peripheries
• although world class struggle do not operate
  within state boundaries, semiperipheries are
  states
• Class interests are clearer in the peripheries ?
  revolution has to come from the peripheries
• Semiperipheral state is the area where a
  conscious state activity can produce world
  revolutionary elements

97
Indicators of Development/Exploitation

• Division of labor
• transition from intrasocietal and intra-empire to
  international/global
• classes indicating transition to capitalist world
  economy
• Technology
• as hegemony factor (c.f. Habermas Technik als
  Ideologie)
• Expansion of production
• expansion, overproduction, redistribution of
  surplus, recovery (40-60 years)
• crisis of overproduction

98
World Hegemony Cycles

• Hegemony a period in which one core power can
  simultaneuosly manifest productive, commercial,
  financial, and military superiority over all
  other core powers
• Period of hegemonic decline hegemonic power has
  lost its superiority in one realm while retaining
  it in others

99
World System Hegemony Cycles

• European expansion
• Portugal late 15th c. 1600
• - pugnacity, military technology (naval
  matters), population hardened to variety of
  diseases
• 2. Holland c. 1600 late 17th
• - Protestantism, capable fluyt focused on trade,
  stock exchange
• Commercial England late 17th late 18th
• - internal social stability, mobile labor power
• Industrial Britain late 18th early 20th
• - industrialization, coal
• 5. United States early 20th
• - adoption of new technologies (electricity,
  petroleum)

100
Present World System

• USA hegemon after the WW II, now (1980s)
  declining
• Resemblances with two previous (capitalist)
  hegemons
• from agro-industry to commerce then finance
• liberal trade policy
• hegemony based on sea or sea/air power
• extended wars for securing hegemony
• assumptions of world responsibilities of
  protecting and preserving the liberal order
• liberal trade arrangements allows technology to
  spread ? new technology to non-hegemon states
• rise of income for the hegemon state working
  class ? competitive advantage to non-hegemon
  states

101
Present Hegemonic Rivalry Period

• USA loss of competitive edge of productivity,
  maintaining and presenting competitive edge on
  military power
• Emergence of new loci of power on the margins of
  the declining hegemons radius of action (East
  Asia, Europe?)
• the possible rise of a new region causes a
  relative decline of another (not only the present
  hegemon)

102
Critique of WST

• Eurocentrism
• A.G.Frank capitalist system 5000 years old few
  centuries ago Europe a periphery of world trade,
  hegemony in South and East Asia
• Reversed causality
• no proof on process of economic underdevelopment
  (case of Poland)
• No sensibility for cultural factors
• materialist approach limits the explanative force
• Methodological problems of macrosociology
• no systematic line in choosing of data, base on
  disconnected secondary sources

103
Alternative Development

• Inadequacy of developmentalist thought
• modernization and dependency based on economism
• grand narratives of world-system theories
• failures of modernizationist practices (Green
  revolution)
• Stagnation of the international structure
• distrust on linear democratization and economic
  growth
• vanishing global control
• Awakening to ecological limits
• environmental tolerance is incompatible with
  limitless economic growth
• Club of Rome (1972)

104
Basic Needs

• Sturcturing the core values of development with
  the hierarchy of needs ?
• basic goods and services necessary for a minimum
  standard of living
• primacy, sufficient conditions satisfaction of
  basic individual needs for everybody
• secondary aim, necessary conditions global
  economic equality, rising per capita incomes
• WB 1972 redistribution of growth and meeting
  basic needs
• - development cooperation and money distribution
  to small projects
• International Labor Organisation (1976)
  Employment, Growth and Basic Needs

105
Demodernization

• Renunciation of blinkered growth and
  dismantlement of ecologically destructing
  industry
• Relocation of power
• distrust towards the state
• Protectionism revisited
• away with CocaColonialism, McDonaldization and
  Disneyfication
• emphasis on plurality and diversity
• Subsidiarity
• development decision-making as close to
  recipients as possible
• state-level too remote

106
Sustainable Development

• Promotion of commodity exports has led to overuse
  of natural resource base ?
• Development which meets the present day needs
  without compromising the abilities of future
  generations to meet their needs
• Primacy of environmental awareness in development
  thought (especially including to values of trade)
• damage limitation and sustainability maximation
• Integration of economic growth to social equity
  and environmental management
• UN World Commission on Environment and
  Development (Brundtland Commission) 1987 Our
  Common Future
• Earth Summit - the United Nations Conference on
  Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de
  Janeiro 1992

107
New Indicators for Development

• Gross Domestic Product (GDP) numb for human
  development
• nature and distribution of income ignored
• Indicators centered in humans and ecology
• from standards of living to quality of life
• Human Development Index (HDI) GDP plus life
  expectancy and education ratios
• Genuine Progress Indicator (GPI) GDP plus
  informal economic contributions minus costs
  (crime, pollution, family breakdown etc.)
• Green GDP GDP minus direct costs of
  environmental degradation
• Ecological Footprint (EF) land/capita needed to
  support consumption of resources
• Living Planet Index (LPI) abundance measured out
  of the global natural forest cover and
  populations of water species

108
Emphasis on Culture

• protection of local culture and indigenous
  knowledge from the cultural homogenization
• capacitation of communities
• emphasis on studying endogeneous characteristics
  and influence of characteristics coming from
  outside
• new (paradigmatic) interests
• religion and language structuring culture
• gender in development practices
• power, knowledge and empowerment
• otherness

109
Development from Below

• Empowerment
• capacitation
• participation
• Indeginous knowledge
• populism
• critique of science and theory
• aversion of systematization
• Trickle-up
• grass-root development agency
• distrust of experts

110
Development from Below

• Voluntarism
• creativist idea of individuals (contra
  consumerism of passive recipients)
• Avoidance of bureaucracy
• Self-reliance as objective (contra as means for
  modernization)
• aims and values from within
• no forerunners to follow
• Modenization from outside causes decay of
  natural societies

111
Development project to NGOs

• Non-profit non-governmental (NGO) organizations
  based on voluntary system
• At least part of the funding from private sources
• Purpose to promote certain political, social,
  ideological, religious etc. goals by conducting
  developmental projects and lobbying
• Ideals of partnership and mutual obligation in
  development projects

112
From the Third World

• bringing off of the bipolar world from the
  perspective of global power structure
• forming of a political coalition between
  underdeveloped countries in order to gain
  self-sufficiency
• ending condemnation of (neo-)colonialism, growing
  interest on issues of global economy
• introduction of the term Third World as a symbol
  of these common objectives
• Bandung Conference 1955
• Non-Aligned Movement/Beograd 1961
• no unifying elements (political, economic,
  religious)

113
To the Fourth and Fifth Worlds

• a poor and depriving development unit without
  sovereign statehood
• a negative product of development project that
  has immisered and marginalized others
• the immiserising is both geographical and
  structural, but not based on class structures so
  much as power/knowledge privileges
• the new poor (end of national solidarity)
• least advanced countries (end of international
  solidarity)
• native indogenous cultural minorities lacking
  voice e.g. in the UN
• women, margins of information society

114
Critique Alternative but development

• Steps towards anti-development
• a challenge to Western development model
• a challenge to universalist development theories
• distrust on state as a development coordinator
• new definitions (poverty, development etc.) and
  policy implications from local perspectives
• But still promoting developmental interventions
• demodernization becomes modernization anyway
  (from within, of tradition)
• alternative in relation to state and market, but
  not in relation to developmentalism

115
Conflicting Agendas

• Universalism contra particularism
• Green contra Brown Agenda
• Global empowerment of the subjugated aggregates
  (women, political dissidents etc.) contra
  empowerment of different, endogenous cultural
  formations
• Union of the peripheral traditionalism, the
  middle level marginalized and the postmaterialism
  of affluence is loose

116
Feminist approach

• Criticism to development theories
• gender-blindness in dimensions of development
  (noiseless intrahousehold)
• Development interventions not only marginalize
  women, but also harm them
• Women are half of the world's people, who perform
  two-thirds of the world's working hours, receive
  one-tenth of the world's income, and own
  one-hundredth of the world's property
• Gynocentric empowerment project

117
Western Liberal Feminism

• Women in Development (WID)
• Restructuring of development programs
• Integration of women to production increases
  economic growth and efficiency
• Belief in the universal maximization of
  individual utilities
• Promotion of women's access to power, technology,
  credit and services (affirmative action)
• Promotion of technologies empowering womens
  participation on social development
• WID programmes Equity, Anti-poverty, Efficiency,
  Welfare, Income generation, Skills training

118
Neo-Marxist Feminism

• Women and Development (WAD)
• Capitalist modernization has impoverished women
  (patriarchal domination secondary, critique of
  gynocentricism)
• Intensification of patriarchy with the spread of
  capitalism
• Focus on relations between men and women in the
  framework of global dependency
• Women not only productive, but also reproductive
• WAD programmes Empowerment

119
Radical Feminism

• Gender and Development (GAD)
• Focus on social meanings given to sex differences
  within the subordinating structures
  (neo-colonialism)
• Gender identity a dynamic social construct
• Complexity and heterogeneity of oppressing
  processes
• Allocation of labour tasks should be changed
• Gender resources contextual, linked with other
  social factors
• GAD programmes Gender ideology change,
  Integration, Emancipation, Gender mainstreaming

120
Environmental Feminism

• Women, Environment and Development (WED)
• Feminist political ecology
• Male control over nature parallel with male
  control over women
• Developing unit is not a machine, but a living
  organism
• Resistance of development to protect nature
• WED programmes sustainable development, gendered
  knowledge

121
Culturalist Feminism

• Women, Culture and Development (WCD)
• holism sharp dichotomies (public/private,
  production/reproduction, modern/traditional,
  cultural/economic)
• womens initiatives diverse forms of meaningful
  agency
• lead to bias in development analysis
• rejection of linear development process
• ethnicity, religion, age, sexuality, livelihood
  as variables of development
• no victimization, no heroism, but emancipation of
  women

122
Feminist Post-Development

• Neo-colonialism Feminism unconsciously echoes
  the masculine will to power (the non-Western
  other exploited by the ideology of a White,
  Western middle-class woman)
• Neo-trusteeship discourse of Western women as
  liberated, forerunners, experts
• In developmentalist worldviews, women continued
  to be constituted as sovereign subjects with the
  capacity to realize development through
  transformations in partiarchal social relations
• emancipation is a catching-up strategy

123
Anti-Development

• Development discourse is a political endeavor of
  those willing to speak for others
• - development intervention based on deceptive
  fictional ideology
• Means of development incorrect
• - trusteeship intervention obstructs free growth
• - state is an authoritarian actor
• - Neo-Liberalism
• Means and goals of development incorrect
• - rejection of growth
• - Post-Development

124
Neo-Classical Economics

• underdevelopment explained by differences in
  policies (not in initial conditions)
• emphasising equilibrium on the laws of supply and
  demand
• efficiency required (best met by perfect
  competition in free markets)
• focus on disaggregeted microstudies (away with
  grand theories)
• agrument free markets underpin human freedom in
  general, states should avoid interventions

125
Neoliberalism

• starting-point Liberalism and neo-classical
  economics
• reason of underdevelopment exploitative state
  evil government
• development idea free markets and international
  trade allow the best context for general welfare
• objective establishment of a global market-based
  system
• elimination of state interventions to the minimum
• with open and outaward-looking economy
• with privatization of state-owned enterprises

126
Rise of the Neoliberalist Doctrine

• End of Bretton Woods system 1973
• New Right governments of USA, Britain and Germany
  1980s
• Structural adjustment programs of IMF and WB
• Washington Consensus

127
Post-Development

• cultural codes the primary constituents of social
  life (c.f. forces of material production)
• emphasis on local knowledge
• from criticism of capitalism to criticism of
  modernity
• focus on discontinuities and complexities
• Development as a strategy of modern power (c.f.
  potential for human emancipation)

128
Action against development

• form of Western modernism and scientific
  distortion (Westernization)
• new religion of the West
• antidemocratic programme
• authoritarian, privileging discourse
• empowerment of the Western knowledge system
• universalistic presupposition
• ethnocentric model of society
• exploitation of endogenous cultures
• normalization, homogenization

129
Reactionary post-development

• Anti-modernization
• Organic society
• Non-interventionism
• Simplicity
• Reappraising non-capitalist societies
• Personal authorities
• Traditional knowledge

130
Anti-managerialism

• anti-authoritarian sensibility
• disgust to external control mechanisms
  international financial institutions and state
  (control system is one version of the Panopticon)
• suspicion of new managerialisms of the NGOs
  (alternative development)
• new clothes (sustainable, human, local, social)
  for development
• unclear and managerial aims self-sufficiency,
  basic needs, participation etc.
• post-development as present-day anarchism
• anti-political tendency (cf. other post-isms)

131
Critique of Science

• Present hegemony of science is based on the
  privileged position of Western middle-aged man
• - one knowledge system hegemony gives support to
  one political programme (for example economics)
• - prohibition of the knowledge systems of
  non-Western societies
• - properly educated elites a poisonous gift
• - forming of laboratory states of the Third
  World
• - unethical intentions, worldview and mindset
  (aim at mastery over nature)
• ? need for new endogenous truths

132
Post Cold War Changes

• Change of structural process
• modernization ? globalization
• Change in the level of objectives
• modernization ? poverty alleviation
• Change in the level of objects
• Third World ? micro-level economies
• Change in the level of actors
• state ? NGO

133
Poverty

• mainstream understanding income and ability to
  consumption, synonymous with underdevelopment
• Post-developmentalist critique
• political concept has displaced modernization as
  the motive for development policies of both
  international financial organizations and
  governments (focus change)
• extension health, social services, political
  rights etc.
• relativization culture/poverty, meaning of
  poverty lines
• deculturation sacred poverty

134
Development discourse(Escobar)

• Power relations (institutions)?
• Representation (discourses) ?
• Enframing (imaginaries identities) ?
• Deployment (incorporation, professionalization,
  institutionalization) ?
• Social construction of reality

135
Development Theories
136
Development Theories
137
Narratives of developmentHistory from Past to
Present
138
Holistic Visions of Development

• holism (voluntarist/determinist,
  endogenous/exogenous, facts/values, green/brown)
• character of the object ? the focus of the
  research problem is already fundamental
• reflexive development
• reaction to preceding development theories
• interests of those concerned