Gross Anatomy

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Gross Anatomy

• Background Review

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Anatomical Position, terminology

• Nomina Anatomica (Latin)
• Normal anatomical position
• upright, arms at side, forearm hand supine 

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Planes

• imaginary lines separating the body at different
  angles
• 1. Median - longitudinal - separates left and
  right (hit surface at anterior, posterior median
  lines)
• 2. Coronal also referred as Frontal - vertical,
  right angle to median - separate anterior and
  post (front, back)
• 3. Horizontal - (often transverse, not always)
  - separate superior inferior (upper
  /lower)(transverse of hand is horizontal but the
  foot is coronal)
• 4. Sagittal - vertical off-center, parallel to
  median (include midsagittal parasagittal)

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Sections / slices

• 1. Longitudinal
• lengthwise through body or an appendage
  (direction of its long axis)
• can be in median, coronal or sagittal planes
• 2. Vertical - same as longitudinal but referring
  to body in anatomical position
• 3. Transverse - cross sections - at right angles
  to long axis (often horizontal)
• 4. Oblique - slanted, at an angle, not in
  longitudinal or transverse

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Relational terms

• to localize different structures on the body in
  anatomical position
• 1. Anterior ventral - toward front (chest,
  palms, soles) also rostral in brain
• 2. Posterior dorsal - toward back (dorsum)
• 3. Superior cranial cephalic - toward head
• 4. Inferior caudal - below, toward feet (tail)
• 5. Medial - toward midline or median plane 
• 6. Lateral - toward side, away from median
  (little toe lateral little finger medial)
• 7. Intermediate - between 2 structures
• 8. visceral
• 9. parietal

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Relative / Comparison

• Terms to describe relative positions of to
  compare 2 structures
• 1. Proximal - nearer trunk or point of origin
• 2. Distal - farther from trunk or point of origin
  
• 3. Superficial - to surface
• 4. Deep - away from surface
• 5. External - toward exterior, especially of an
  organ
• 6. Internal - to the interior of an organ or
  inner surface
• 7. Ipsilateral - same side of body
• 8. Contralateral - opposite side ( Right vs. 
  Left )
• 9. Central - near or towards the center
• 10. Peripheral - father, away from the center

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Movements - of body parts

• 1. Abduction - away from midline
• 2. Adduction - toward midline
• 3. Flexion - bend - decrease angle of a joint
• 4. Extension - straighten - increase angle of a
  joint (hyperextension beyond straight point)
• 5. Lateral rotation - rotate outward (e.g. leg)
• 6. Medial rotation - rotate inward
• 7. Circumduction - circular motion (involves 1-4)
  
• 8. Inversion - sole of foot toward median plane

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Movements - of body parts

• 9. Eversion - sole of foot laterally - outward to
  side
• 10. Pronation - rotate hand so palm faces
  posterior
• 11. Supination - rotate hand so palm is anterior
• 12. Protrusion - move anteriorly - stick out
  (e.g. chin)
• 13. Retraction / Retrusion - move posteriorly -
  pull, tuck in (shoulders, chin)
• 14. Elevation - lifting
• 15. Depression - lowering to a more inferior
  position
• 16. Opposition - move thumb towards the other
  digits
• 17. Reposition - move thumb away from other digits

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Systems

• 1. Integumentary - skin accessory structures
• 2. Skeletal - bones, cartilages
• 3. Articular - joints ( bones, ligaments at
  each)
• 4. Muscular - muscles (part of musculoskeletal)
• 5. Nervous - brain, spinal cord, nerves
• 6. Circulatory - vascular - heart arteries,
  veins, capillaries lymphatic (nodes, vessels)

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Systems

• 7. Respiratory - lungs, diaphragm, airways
• 8. Digestive - alimentary canal (mouth to anus)
  accessory organs (liver, pancreas etc)
• 9. Renal / Urinary - kidneys, bladder, excretory
  tubule system
• 10. Endocrine - endocrine glands (pituitary,
  hypothalamus, adrenals, reproductive glands)
• 11. Reproductive - ovaries or testes (a.k.a.
  urogenital system, esp. in males)

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Muscular System

• function in movement, support (posture), heat
  generation

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Skeletal Muscle

• 1. striated, voluntary
• 2. moves bones, skin (facial muscles) -
  typically, origin insertion are attached across
  a joint
• - most are under our control, although many
  movements are reflexes - eg stretch reflex
• 3. attachments
• each has an Origin proximal attachment
  Insertion distal attachment
• 4. structure  a. muscle fiber muscle cell
  structural unit b. motor unit one motor neuron
  all muscle fibers under its control
• size varies inversely with precision, delicacy of
  control

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Skeletal muscle

• 5. movements a. agonists prime movers - carry
  out the main movement
• b. antagonists - oppose action of agonists -
  relax as agonist contracts for smooth movement
• c. synergists - complement/ work with/ support
  prime movers - especially to support the joint
• d. fixators - steady proximal part of limb while
  distal part is moved (e.g. forearm vs. hand)

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Smooth muscle

• 1. non-striated, involuntary - controlled by ANS
• 2. propels foodstuffs thru alimentary canal
  blood thru vessels a. undergoes peristalsis -
  rhythmic waves of contraction
• b. maintains a constant level of tone (esp.
  important in vasculature)

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Cardiac muscle

• 1. striated, but involuntary - spontaneous
  excitation under control of ANS
• 2. pumps blood through heart

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Nervous System

• Major Functions of the Nervous System
• 1. Sensory - many receptor types in body sense,
  detect changes in body or surroundings
• 2. Integration - of information received thru
  sensory system to arrive at a proper response
• 3. Motor - nerve impulses trigger responses by
  the bodys effectors muscles, glands etc

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Nervous System

• Divisions
• 1. CNS the brain spinal cord - nerves do NOT
  regenerate after injury
• 2. PNS peripheral nerves that communicate
  between the CNS and the rest of the body- nerves
  MAY regenerate after injury

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Structures

• 1. Neurons the functional cells of the NS -
  transmit electrical impulsesa. dendrites
  receptive processes receive impulses from
  receptors other neuronsb. axon single
  transmitting process, sends impulse to other
  neurons or to effectors- myelin sheath -
  insulates axon - speeds transmission- nodes of
  Ranvier - spaces between sections of myelin

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Structures

• 2. Neuroglial cells
• a. supportive accessory cells - insulate, connect
  neurons, attach neurons with surrounding tissue
• b. provide nutritive support - to provide energy,
  provide central nervous system with blood
• 3. Types of Neurons - Classified by Function
• a. Motor
• b. Sensory
• c. Interneurons depends on how information
  flows

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Basic terminology

• 1. Nucleus - a group of neuronal cell bodies
  within the CNS
• 2. Ganglion (ganglia, pl) - group of cell bodies
  outside the CNS
• 3. Nerve - collection of axons (fibers) in PNS
  fasciculus - a bundle of nerves- plexus
  network of nerves in one area
• 4. Tract - bundle of axons/fibers in the CNS
• 5. Gray matter - concentrations of cell bodies in
  CNS, e.g.. cerebral cortex
• 6. White matter - axons, processes in the CNS

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Connective tissue meninges

• 1. CNS meninges
• connective tissue surround, protect the nervous
  sytem
• a. pia mater - immediately next to the nervous
  tissue
• b. arachnoid - middle layer
• the 2 inner layers, leptomeninges, thin
  delicate
• c. dura mater - outermost meninges, thicker
  very tough
• d. cerebrospinal fluid fills space between
  arachnoid and pia mater

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PNS

• a. endoneurium thin collagenous layer,
  immediately surrounds a myelinated n fiber
• b. perineurium CT covering surrounding a
  fascicle of nerve fibers
• c. epineurium thick CT layer surrounding many
  fascicles wh make up a nerve trunk
• the 3 CNS meningial layers are continuous with
  the CT layers around PNS nerves

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The Peripheral Nervous System

• 1. Cranial nerves 12 pair transmit from brain to
  head, neck, trunk (mixed, motor sensory, more
  in Neuro)
• 2. Spinal nerves 31 pair communicate btw spinal
  cord neck, trunk, arms, legs (mixed)
• a. Dorsal roots - sensory/afferent fibers into
  cord, dorsal root ganglia contain cell bodies of
  sensory neurons
• b. Ventral roots - motor/efferent ff from cord to
  periphery, branch once outside cord
• c. dorsal ventral roots combine, form spinal
  nerve, which branches again
• dorsal primary rami supply fibers to dorsum
  (back)
• ventral primary rami supply fibers to
  anterolateral trunk, limbs

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Somatic Nervous System

• 1. nerves that communicate w skin skeletal
  muscles
• 2. functions are under conscious control

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Autonomic Nervous System

• 1. concerned with automatic/ visceral functions,
  homeostatic mechanisms (CVS, digestion)
• 2. function without conscious control
• 3. control the function of visceral organs -
  heart, smooth muscle, vessels, glands D. ANS has
  2 Divisions

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Sympathetic Division

• concerned primarily w survival, emergency,
  stressful situations Fight or flight system
• a. connects with thoracic lumbar segments T1 -
  L2 or 3
• b. many connect with Peripheral NS efferent/motor
  neuron in ganglia
• paravertebral ganglia (sympathetic trunk)
• prevertebral ganglia  (visceral ganglia., e.g.
  celiac ganglia.)
• the adrenal medulla (exception, innervated by
  preganglionic fiber directly)
• c. route spinal cord lateral horn - sympathetic
  axons (preganglionic) gt through ventral root gt
  through white ramus communicante (branch to
  ganglion) gt to paravertebral ganglia 

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Sympathetic Division

• then either 1) passes through ganglia (without
  synapse) directly to viscera (as a splanchnic
  nerve)
• 2) ascends or descends through trunk to another
  level, then postganglionic fibers innervate
  organs like heart, lungs, glands
• 3) synapses in ganglia with excitor neurons gt
  postganglionic go back through gray ramus
  communicante gt then blend in with spinal nerve gt
  effectors

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Parasympathetic system

• Breed and Feed
• a. concerned w normal functions eating,
  sleeping, procreation, conserving energy
• b. connects with cranial sacral segments
  cranial III, VII, IX, X spinal S2 - S4

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Spinal cord

• 1. continuation of the CNS from the brain, out of
  the skull into the vertebral column
• 2. composed of 31 segments - a pair of spinal
  nerve exits each segment, to the periphery
• 3. gray matter localized to central core mostly
  cell bodies, proximal unmyelinated process
• 4. white matter surrounds central area composed
  of primarily myelinated axons, fibers

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Spinal cord

• 5. Function - spinal cord communicates to from
  the brain the remainder of the body
• a. ascending tracts carry sensory input to CNS
  (some to spinal cord, some to brain)
• b. descending tracts leaving the brain spinal
  cord carry motor output to effectors
• c. most fiber tracts cross to contralateral side
  at some point in spinal cord or brain

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• mixed nerves
• 31 pairs
• 8 cervical (C1 to C8)
• 12 thoracic (T1 to T12)
• 5 lumbar (L1 to L5)
• 5 sacral (S1 to S5)
• 1 coccygeal (Co)

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Dermatome

• an area of skin that the sensory nerve fibers of
  a particular spinal nerve innervate

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