History of Anatomy

1

• T.MANIRATHNAM
• Faculty in Anatomy
• KOCHI- India

2
Prelude

• The study of human anatomy was always a result of
  struggle between human desire to learn and
  religious restrictions, later combined with
  philosophical orientation

3
Total ban to public dissection

• Through the times it travelled from total
  negation to full opening and public dissection in
  anatomical theatres

4
OLDEST SCIENCE

• The study of the human body has its origin in the
  prehistoric times, making it one of the oldest
  known science

5
PREHISTORIC AGE

• Anatomy is the oldest medical science.
• Cave paintings of the Stone Age, about 30000
  years ago show a simple knowledge of the anatomy
  of animals, and in some cases, humans, making it
  one of the oldest known science.

6
Cave paintings

• Stone age cave paintings in Spain suggests that
  primitive hunters knew about the location of
  vital organs like heart in elephant.

7
Markings

• Cave paintings also depicts pictures of animals
  on which the critical areas are marked areas
  when hit would have killed the animal. It is the
  evidence of first ever lesson in surface anatomy

8
Anatomy knowledge for survival

• The prehistoric man needed a practical knowledge
  of animal anatomy for his survival

9
Gross anatomy

• Prehistoric men performed some particular rituals
  with human and animal remains which indicates
  general knowledge of gross anatomy

10
EARLY HUMAN FORM

• The earliest sculpture of the human form is the
  lime stone figurine, known as the Venus of
  Willendorf(22000 B.C), found in
  Austria.----Fertility Goddesses

11
Indus valley civilization

• Male nude torso (2700B.C) showing the muscular
  composition

12
Mesopotamia 4000 B.C

• A few anatomical descriptions are found in the
  clay tablets of Mesopotamia.

13
Liver

• In Mesopotamia priests dissected sheep, searched
  the liver and mapped the findings in the clay
  model.

14
Liver as center of life

• The liver was known as collecting point of blood
  and believed as the center of life.

15
Divination

• The priests made clay models of liver of the
  sheep to predict the future from observations
  made on the internal organs of sacrificed
  animals-divination

16
Trephination 10000-5000B.C

• The process of making hole in the skull of a
  living person was the first surgical procedure to
  cure epilepsy, migraine, and mental disorders by
  prehistoric people in West Europe, South America,
  and Asia

17
ANCIENT EGYPT
18
Egypt medicine

• Medicine and other sciences was built upon
  religion and the physicians were priests

19
Birth of anatomy

• Anatomy as a science came to birth in ancient
  Egypt.
• The precursor of the anatomist is the embalmer
  who mummified the bodies of Pharaohs

20
Embalmer

• Anatomical study was neither the objective nor
  the interest of the embalmer.
• He was a technician concerned solely with
  preventing the dissolution of the cadaver.

21
No complete dissection

• Egyptian knew where the major organs were.
• But because they believed the body was needed for
  the afterlife, it could not be completely
  dissected.

22
Mummification

• The embalmers with their knowledge of human
  anatomy opened the abdomen on the left side to
  extract internal organs in the process of
  mummification.

23
Canopic jars

• The intestine, stomach, lungs, and liver (only
  four organs) were removed and stored in carved
  limestone canopic jars with a different shaped
  head of gods who looked after body parts.

24
Jar for intestine

• The falcon headed Qebhsnuf (west) looked after
  intestine.

25
Jar for stomach

• The jackal headed Duamutef (east) protected the
  stomach.

26
Jar for lungs

• Baboon headed Hapi(north) cared for the lungs.

27
Jar for liver

• Human headed Imseti(south) was the guardian of
  the liver.

28
No jar for heart

• There was no jar for heart. It was believed to be
  the seat of the soul, and so it was left inside
  the body.

29
Skull anatomy

• They also got into the cranial cavity through
  nostrils to remove the brain tissue, which
  required the knowledge of the skull anatomy.

30
Brain not important

• The brain was not considered to be important
  you think with your heart and not with your
  brainand so removed and was thrown away.

31
3400 B.C

• First manual of anatomy was written in Egypt
  about 3400B.C by the first king and physician
  Menes even before the pyramids were built

32
Papyrus

• Egyptologists have found documents written on a
  paper called papyrus, that describes human body
  and medical techniques

33
Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus-1600 B.C

• The oldest anatomical treatise extant is Egyptian
  papyrus Edwin Smith Papyrus which describes
  various organs and surgical procedures.
• It contains the first written account of brain.

34
Egyptologist

• The papyrus was named after Edwin Smith an
  American Egyptologist

35
Imhotep

• The information in the papyrus is considered as
  the work of Imhotep the first pharaoh during
  3000B.C and regarded as the copy of several
  earlier works

36
God of medicine

• Imhotep was a famous physician, but was most
  known for building the pyramid.
• He was worshiped as a god of medicine.

37
Other Egyptian papyrus

• Ebers papyrus
• An Egyptian stamp on Ebers papyrus which
  describes diabetes

38

• Khaun gynecological papyrus

39
ANCIENT GREECE
40
Philosophical approach

• The ancient Greek medicine and anatomy were built
  on the ideas of the Egyptians by adding
  philosophical approach to knowledge.
• DISSECTION OF HUMAN BODY NOT ALLOWED on
  religious grounds

41
Homer -800B.C

• The poet Homer in his Iliad describes 150 wounds
  of Trojan war soldiers with surprising anatomical
  accuracies.

42
Honor to Homer

• Alexander the Great honors the work of Homer

43
Alcmaeon-500B.C

• He dissected animals and published a treatise
  entitled On Nature.
• This great anatomist was the first to describe
  and locate the optic nerve.

44
HIPPOCRATES 460-377 B.C
45
Father of medicine

• Hippocrates is the Greek philosopher and the
  Father of medicine". Earlier to him diseases
  were thought to be punishment from god.
• Credit should go to him for scientific approach
  to medical diagnosis and treatment replacing the
  treatment based on magic and religion

46
Hippocrates oath

• He developed an Oath of Medical Ethics for
  physicians to follow.

47
Hippocrates anatomy

• He declared anatomy is the foundation of
  medicine (Persaud, p 33), but at the same time
  he believed that one could learn sufficient
  anatomy by observing wounds and human bones,
  without dissecting corpses.

48
Book by Hippocrates

• In his book Hippocratic Corpus we find a fairly
  good account of bones, especially of the skull,
  including the sutures, and the joints of the body.

49
ARISTOTLE 384-322B.C
50
Stamps
51
Philosopher and teacher

• Aristotle, a pupil of Plato was a famous natural
  philosopher and a creative thinker in various
  fields like zoology, logic, psychology, and
  politics.
• He was the teacher of Alexander the Great.

52
Dissection of animals

• He developed theories of human anatomy based only
  on exterior physical examination and the
  dissection of animals.
• His treatise History of Animals(10books) and On
  Parts of Animals(4books) constitute the great
  monument of Aristotelian anatomy

53
Comparative anatomy and embryology

• The books by Aristotle made him as the Founder
  of Comparative Anatomy
• He wrote the first known account of embryology,
  in which he described the development of heart in
  chick embryo.

54
Heart as the source

• However, he erroneously believed that the heart
  is the source of all mental processes and argued
  that because the brain is bloodless it functions
  as a radiator, cooling hot blood that ascends
  from the heart.

55
Diocles of Carystus(300B.C)

• According to Roman physician Galen(129 to 216AD)
  Diocles of Carystus Greece was the first to use
  the term anatomy.
• He was the student of Aristotle and known as
  Younger Hippocrates

56
Alexandria(300-30B.C)CRADLE OF ANATOMY AND
PHYSIOLOGY
57
Alexander the Great

• 2300years ago. Alexander the Great, the Greek
  Emperor, and the student of Aristotle conquered
  Egypt and established Alexandria, the Greco-Egypt
  capital.

58
Wonders of the ancient world

• Alexanders general Ptolemy I developed the city
  and built the light house, one of the seven
  wonders of the ancient world.

59
Library of Alexandria

• But the greatest achievement was the Library Of
  Alexandria launched in 288 B.C

60
Three in one

• It was part academy, part research center, and
  part library.
• 70000 scrolls filled the shelves of library,

61
Place for scholars

• Philosophers, mathematicians, astronomers
  ,artists ,poets and physicians were all
  encouraged to come and work there.
• Archimedes was in this library.

62
Father of anatomy and father of physiology

• Two Greek physicians attracted to Alexandria were
  Herophilus of Chalcedon and Erasistratus of Ceos
  . They are known as Father of Anatomy and
  Father of Physiology". They studied and
  catalogued works of Hippocrates and Aristotle.

63
HEROPHILUS (325-255B.C)
64
Human dissection permitted

• Before Alexandrian school human dissection was
  not permitted and ancient anatomy was animal
  anatomy.
• During the Herophilus time for a brief period the
  ban on human dissection was lifted.

65
First person to dissect human body

• Ptolemy I permitted the human dissection of human
  body and he was present at some of the
  dissections.
• Herophilus is the first man in the history of
  anatomy to dissect the human body. Dissected
  about 600 human bodies.

66
First anatomy department

• He founded the medical school in Alexandria with
  the first department of anatomy.
• Human vivisection -dissection of living body was
  allowed on criminals.

67
Contributions of Herophilus

• Two monumental books of Herophilus are On Anatomy
  and Of the Eyes.
• The name duodenum is attributed to him.
• He is the first person to give the general
  description of the nervous system.
• He differentiated veins from arteries and nerves.
• The first person to distinguish between sensory
  and motor nerves..

68
Torcular herophili

• He developed the anatomy register by determining
  anatomy nomenclature.
• The confluence of sinuses was named torcular
  Herophili after him.

69
Study of pulse

• Herophilus studied pulse by using water clock

70
Erasistratus(310-250B.C)

• Anatomy is to physiology as geography to history.
• Erasistratus of Alexandria was more of a
  physiologist and referred to as Father of
  physiology because of his interpretations of
  various body functions.

71
Decline of Alexandria

• Alexandria began to decline during the rule of
  last Ptolemy Cleopatra.

72
Julius Caesar

• It is because of the Roman invasion by Julius
  Caesar. The Alexandria library was accidentally
  set on fire by Caesar in 48 B.C.

73
Marc Antony

• Marc Antony gave Cleopatra the 200000 scrolls of
  Pergamon, to make for the loses.
• Later it was totally destroyed by Roman armies.

74
Writings of Celsus and Galen

• What is known about Alexandria was obtained from
  writings of later Roman physicians like Celsus
  and Galen.

75
ROMAN EMPIRE(27B.C-476A.D)
76
HUMAN DISSECTION BANNED

• The Romans conquered Greek Alexandria.
• Human dissection was banned and anatomy became
  more theoretical.
• Roman history mostly starts after Jesus Christ.

77
Roman emperor Nero(37-68 A.D)

• Nero supervised the dissection of his mother
  Agripinna to see where he had come from and to
  satisfy his eccentric curiosity.

78
Not included in the history of anatomy

• So the history of anatomy do not include this
  event in its timeline.

79
Two anatomists

• Two important anatomists from the Roman Era are
  Celsus and Galen.

80
Aulus Cornelius Celsus(25B.C-50A.D)

• Celsus the Roman encyclopedist and physician
  gathered the Greek Alexandria anatomy and surgery
  and translated them into Roman- De Re Medicina or
  On Anatomy in 8 volumes.

81
GALEN OF PERGAMON(130-201A.D)

• Also known as Aelius Galenus or Claudius Galenus

82
Physician to Gladiators

• Galen was born in Greece and after Romans
  conquered Greeks he emigrated to Rome and became
  celebrated physician for Roman gladiators.

83
Human dissection forbidden

• Human dissection was forbidden in ancient Rome.
• Galen never dissected a human body and he learned
  anatomy from the wounds of gladiators, later he
  called windows into the body.

84
Animal dissection

• Most of Galens knowledge of anatomy came from
  dissection of animals particularly pigs and apes
  because he could not dissect humans under Roman
  law.

85
Galens dissection of pigs
86
Galen as a writer

• Galen was a prolific writer, and he kept as many
  as 20 scribes to write down his every dictum.
• The most important book of Galen is On the
  Anatomical Procedures.

87
Books by Galen

• His other books include On the Use of the Parts
  of the Human Body

88
Other books by Galen

• The Best Doctor is Also a Philosopher and
• On the Natural Faculties

89
15Century manuscript showing Galen, his
assistant, and scribe
90
Volumes of books

• One third of his writing survived and is
  equivalent to 20 volumes of an encyclopedia.
• His writing examine every area of medicine
  including anatomy, psychiatry, reproduction, diet
  and pharmaceutical intervention.

91
Guide to Galens books

• Even he published a guide to his writings,
  entitled On His Own Works, because Galen
  compiled all medical, and anatomical knowledge
  including his own observations into gigantic
  multivolume work.

92
Galens contributions

• Galen studied the anatomy of the heart, but he
  did not discover the circulation of blood
  (William Harvey)

93
Functioning of kidney

• To study the function of the kidneys in producing
  urine, he tied the ureters of the dog and
  observed the swelling of the kidneys.

94
Blood in arteries

• . Galen severed a live animals artery to show
  that only blood, but not air flowed through it.
• Since arteries were empty in cadavers early
  anatomists proposed that arteries carried air.

95
Galens mistakes

• Because his knowledge was derived from animal
  dissection, rather than human dissection, Galen
  made many mistakes
• For instance, he thought a group of blood vessels
  near the back of the brain, the rete mirabile
  was common in humans , but so only in animals.

96
Galens authority

• Galen for all his mistakes remained an
  unchallenged authority for 1300 years.
• For 1300 years studying medicine and anatomy was
  to study Galen until Renaissance

97
Nobody questioned Galens authority

• During the Middle Ages questioning Galen was
  questioning authority and because authority came
  from God, it was punishable by death so nobody
  questioned Galens conclusions.

98
Admission and evaluation methods

• The university of Padua ( Italy) made students to
  read Galen work before admission.
• Students were failed if their knowledge about
  Galens work was inadequate.

99
Stagnation in anatomy

• After Galens death in 201 A.D the study of
  anatomy stagnated for 1300 years after the fall
  of Roman Empire .
• The world entered into the dark period of Middle
  Ages with the fall of Roman Empire

100
Fall of Roman Empire

• Factors such as constant war, heavy military
  spending and political crisis caused the fall of
  Rome.
• The last emperor was Romulus Augusts.

101
THE MIDDLE AGES(480-1400A.D)

• The middle age is the age of faith in religion
• Science and medicine was suppressed for more than
  1000 years.
• Human dissections were forbidden by many
  religions.
• The study of anatomy was frowned upon by church.

102
Animal dissection again

• In the Middle Ages following the fall of Roman
  Empire anatomical knowledge was based chiefly
  upon Galens books and not on dissection of human
  cadavers.
• Anatomists were reduced to dissect animals again.

103
CONTRIBUTION OF ARABIA

• Arabic speaking people made a profound
  contribution to the history of anatomy.
• It was the Islamic world that saved much of the
  works of Aristotle, Hippocrates and Galen from
  the suppression of science by the Middle Ages
  and the ban on writings of anatomical subjects by
  church, through translation.

104
Anatomy in Arabia (600-1100A.D)

• When dark ages pervaded medicine and anatomy
  shifted to Arabia.
• Islamic science and medicine were popular in the
  world from 6th to 11th centuries.

105
Translations of Galens work in Arabic by Hunayn
ibn Ishag

• In 850 A.D the Arab physician Hunayn ibn Ishaq of
  Baghdad travelled to Greece collected Galens
  manuscripts and translated from Greek to Arabic.

106
Arabic version of Galen's On the Use of the Parts
of the Human Body
107
Arabic translation

• Galens great anatomical works On Anatomical
  Procedures in fifteen books of which the last
  seven exist only in Arabic translation.

108
Translation

• Galens work spread throughout the Arabic Empire
  after the translations of his 129 works by Hunayn
  ibn Ishaq.

109
AVICENNA(980-1037A.D)
110
Avicenna
111
Avicenna
112
Arabic Galen

• Abn Ali Hosain Ibn Abdallah Ibn Sina---Shortly
  Ibn Sina called by Latins Avicenna.
• He combined the principles of Galen and Islamic
  principles in his book Canon of Medicine

113
The book Canon of Medicine

• The Canon of Medicine remained as the most
  authoritative book on anatomy in the Islamic
  world.

114
Popular personalities

• Hippocrates, Galen and Avicenna are the popular
  personalities in the history of medicine.

115
Abul Casis(936-1013A.D)

• Abu Qasim ibn-Zahrawi also known as Abul Casis
  created a system and method of human dissection
  along with the first formal surgical techniques
  in his book Kitab-al-Tasrif.

116
Ibn Zuhr(1091-1161A.D)

• Ibn Zuhr commonly known as Avenzoar broke the
  tradition and conducted dissection and postmortem
  autopsy of human bodies.

117
Book by Ibn Zuhr

• He wrote the book Kitab-Al -Taisir Fil Mudawat
  Wal(Book of Simplification Concerning
  Therapeutics and Diet.)

118
Abdel Latif Al Baghdadi(1162-1231A.D)

• During the famine in Egypt in 1200 he examined a
  large number of skeletons and found that Galen
  was incorrect regarding the bones of sacrum.

119
Ibn Al Nafis(1210-1288A.D)
120
Pulmonary circulation

• The first person to describe pulmonary
  circulation in his book Commentary on Anatomy in
  Avicenna

121
From Arabia to Europe again

• During 1100 A.D all Arabic translations of
  medicine and anatomy were returned to Europe in
  turn translated to Latin.
• The most important one is the Latin version of
  Avicennas The Canon of Medicine

122
Greek and Latin terms

• During translation process Arabic terms were
  removed, so today we find few anatomical terms of
  Arabic origin.

123
Last part of middle age 1100 A.D

• Despite the restriction on human dissection and
  the study of anatomy some continue to perform.

124
Enter the Galen

• .
• Galens translated work from Arabic to Latin
  became the basis of medical training in Europe.
• He is known as the Medical Pope of the Medieval
  Ages

125
Reading Galen

• A tradition had emerged in which professor who
  wore a long robe that almost concealed his shoes
  ( in order to show his status) read Galens book

126
Assistant performed dissection

• The assistant performed the dissection, wore a
  short gown (which showed his inferior rank).
• The students will listen to the professor.
• The professor will not look at the body because
  everything worth learning could be found in
  Galens book.

127
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128
THIRTEENTH CENTURY
129
First medical school 1235A.D

• First European medical school founded at Salerno
  Italy in 1235.
• Human bodies were publically dissected.

130
THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY
131
Mondino de Luzzi- 1316 A.D

• Mondino de Luzzi- physician staged public
  dissection at Bologna university Italy

132
First manual

• He developed the first manual for anatomic
  dissection Mundinus De Anathomia used for 200
  years.
• It is the first European text book of anatomy
  with 44 pages and without any illustrations.
• He relied largely upon Galens writings to write
  the manual.

133
BULL by Pope Boniface VIII 1300 A.D
134
Bull

• A bull is an official document issued by the Pope
  with lead seal ( bulla ) at the bottom.

135
Bull de Sepulturies

• The title of the Bull runs as follows "Persons
  cutting up the bodies of the dead, barbarously
  cooking them in order that the bones being
  separated from the flesh may be carried
  for burial into their own countries are by the
  very fact excommunicated."

136
Mistaken

• The bull was mistaken and the study of anatomy
  was abandoned.

137
Later Popes

• The problem posed on anatomy was resolved by
  other Popes.
• A postmortem was performed on Pope Alexander V in
  1410.

138
Sanction of dissection

• Pope Clement VII (1478-1534) sanctioned human
  dissection for educational purposes.

139
Impact on anatomy

• As a consequence Italy (Rome) later became the
  main center for the study of anatomy.

140
FIFTEENTH CENTURY- RENAISSANCE
141
RENAISSANCE(1400-1550)
142
Beginning of science and arts

• The name renaissance means rebirth and is the
  period of innovations in both arts and science.
• Its birth place was Italy.

143
Separation of religion and science

• There was a significant separation of religion
  and science.
• The general dates given for renaissance are
  1400-1550.

144
Anatomy in Italy

• Anatomy flourished in Italy.
• Many European went to Italy as the educational
  center of anatomy.
• Only in Italy research methods like dissection of
  female body could be conducted.

145
Artists and Physicians

• Italian artists like Leonardo da Vinci and the
  physicians like Andreas Vesalius of Padua
  university developed anatomy

146
Artist Anatomist
147
Leonardo da Vinci(1452-1519A.D)
148
Mona Lisa and The last supper
149
Private dissection

• Da Vinci received permission to dissect corpses
  at hospitals in Milan and Rome.
• He made about 750 anatomical drawings
• He performed 30 dissections himself.

150
Anatomical drawings
151
Less celebrated

• Da Vinciss anatomical work was less celebrated
  than his art.
• This is because his anatomical works were
  disappeared until the later part of eighteenth
  century and were not published during his life
  time.

152
Discovery of anatomical work

• The anatomical work of da Vinci were discovered
  in England in the Royal Library at Windsor Castle
  by the famous physician and anatomy teacher
  William Hunter.

153
Printing technology

• The invention of printing press during 1450s and
  the development of woodcut and copperplate
  engravings made it possible to publish multiple
  copies of illustrated anatomies.

154
SIXTEENTH CENTURY
155
Jacopo Berengario da Carpi-(1470-1530A.D)

• He is the successor of Mondino de Luzzi at the
  university of Bologna, Italy.

156
Isagogae Breves

• He published in 1521 Isagoge breves perlucide ac
  uberrime in anatomium humani corporis.

157
Based on human anatomy

• His book Isagoge Breves- A Short Introduction to
  Anatomy is the first anatomy text based on human
  anatomy.

158
FATHER OF MODERN ANATOMY ANDREAS VESALIUS
159
Andreas Vesalius(1514-1564A.D)

• Andreas Vesalius- (An-dre-as-vi-salus) Latinized
  form of Andries van Wessel.
• Also known as Andreas Vesal, Andre Vesalio, and
  Andre Vesale.

160
Human dissection after 1800 years

• After 1800 years of human dissection by
  Herophilus of Alexandria, Andreas Vesalius
  started the tradition again.

161
Vesalius birth place in Brussels
162
Vesalius statue in Brussels

• The statue was erected in 1847 with an anatomy
  book in his left hand.

163

• Vesalius the Belgian anatomist, physician, and
  author at his young age of 23 was made Head of
  the dept of Surgery at the university of Padua in
  Italy, the most important medical school then.

164
Anatomy teaching

• Vesalius challenged the traditional method of
  teaching by performing dissections himself rather
  than reading Galens book and having assistants
  open up the cadaver.

165

• A Paduan judge made bodies of criminals available
  to Vesalius for dissection.
• Obsessed with dissection, he even stacked up
  cadavers in his bed room

166
Vesalius preparing the body

• Andreas Vesalius and his assistant scavenging
  corpses for anatomical studies.

167
Correcting Galens mistakes

• Vesalius showed that Galens work (based upon
  animal dissection) was merely an attempt to apply
  animal structure to the human body.
• He corrected about 200 mistakes of Galens work.

168
Examples

• The sternum which is made up of three parts is
  one of Vesaliuss discoveries which proved that
  Galen had the wrong idea of a seven part sternum
  which he found in his ape dissections.

169
Ribs

•  Vesalius also claimed that men and women have
  the same amount of ribs
• , whereas in the Bible it is written that during
  the night when Adam was asleep, God took out one
  of Adams ribs and created Eve out of it.
• This claim did create a lot of chaos but as
  Vesalius had public dissections the church had to
  simply accept that it was true.

170
Brain

• The area that created most problems with the
  church for Vesalius was the nervous system.
• The church believed that the heart controls the
  whole body, emotion, feelings, and even contains
  the soul. Vesalius proved that all come not from
  the heart but from the brain

171
De Humani Corporis FabricaTHE ANATOMY BOOK
172
Anatomy book

• In 1543 he published seven volumes book De Humani
  Corporis---On the Fabric of the Human Body
  commonly known as Fabrica.

173
Dedicated to

• The book dedicated to Charles v was a ground
  breaking work of human anatomy which began the
  modern science of anatomy.

174
Vesalius sent a copy to king Charles v with 200
hand colored illustrations book

• .

175
Original copy of Fabrica
176
Illustrations of Fabrica

• Vesalius was an anatomist and not an artist. The
  200 woodcut illustrations were produced by the
  Jan Stephen Van Calcar, the student of popular
  Renaissance painter Titian.

177
Woodcuts

• The woodcut blocks were cut in Venice and
  transported across Alps by mule to Basel where
  the printer Oporinus received them with strict
  instructions from Vesalius.

178
Destroyed

• Four hundred years later in 1943 the original
  wood blocks for the Fabrica were destroyed by the
  Allied bombings of Munich.

179
Interesting information in the front page of the
book,

• The front page shows Vesalius, breaking the
  tradition, himself dissecting corpse with his own
  hands.

180
Female corpse

• It is also interesting to note the use of a
  female corpse in the front page.

181
Classical authors

• Some larger figures wearing ancient robes are the
  classical authors- Hippocrates, and Galen.

182
Assistants

• The assistants ( barber surgeons) previously
  opened the cadavers at dissections have been
  banished to the floor, where they quarrel over
  who will sharpen Vesaliuss razor.

183
Surface anatomy

• The nude figure clinging to the column on the
  left indicate importance of surface anatomy.

184
Skeleton

• The centre of the first page is dominated by a
  skeleton because Vesalius believed the skeleton
  to be the starting point for anatomy and the
  first volume is devoted to skeleton.

185
Importance of corpse

• The female corpse is drawn in such a way that the
  dissected body is larger than Vesalius himself.

186
Animals

• The dog on the right and the monkey on the left
  can be seen as reference to Galens animal
  dissection.

187
Dog with human foot

• The dogs hind leg is a human foot to suggest
  that using animal was not a good way to
  understand the human body.

188
Worlds oldest anatomical preparation

• In 1546 Vesalius assembled the bones of a
  executed criminal.

189
The Basel Skeleton

• This preparation The Basel Skeleton is the only
  Vesaliuss well preserved skeletal preparation
  today, and also worlds oldest anatomical
  preparation.

190
Basel skeleton at

• It is preserved in the Anatomical Museum of the
  University of Basel-Switzerland.

191
Humerus bone prepared by Vesalius

• The 450 year old humerus bone prepared by
  Vesalius preserved at Museo Anatomico, Naples, is
  still glistering in varnish.
• Next to the bone is the donation letter.

192
Leaving the medical school

• Vesalius masterpiece De humani fabrica was met
  with harsh criticism from church and Galenic
  anatomists.

193
Burned his works

• As a response to harsh criticism he burned the
  reminder of his unpublished works in the same
  year of publication.

194

• He left medical school and lived out the rest of
  his life as a court physician to Charles v.

195
Death of Vesalius

• For unknown reason in 1564, he undertook a
  pilgrimage to the Holy Land Jerusalem, from which
  he never returned.

196
Died at the age of 50

• On his return, he was caught in a storm and
  shipwrecked on a Greek island,Zakynthos, where he
  fell ill and at just 50 years of age he died and
  buried in an unidentified site.

197
BARTOLOMEO EUSTACHI(1500-1574)

• Eustachi( aOOsta ke) Italian anatomist,
  contemporary of Vesalius, taught at university of
  Rome.

198
Contributions

• He extended the knowledge of inner ear.
• Discovered the adrenal gland.
• Studied the structure and development of teeth.

199
Tabulae Anatomicae

• He died suddenly and all his works were deposited
  in the Vatican library.
• Later after 140 years they were recovered and
  published as Tabulae Anatomicae by Pope Clement
  xi.

200
REALDO COLOMBO(1516-1559)

• Italian anatomist and became assistant to
  Vesalius in 1541.
• Later he became his successor as Professor of
  anatomy at the university of Padua.

201
Public dissection

• Later he moved to Papal University at Rome and
  became the physician to Pope Julius III.
• Several hundred people attended his anatomical
  dissections and cardinals and archbishops were
  often present.

202
Anatomy book

• Published his only work De Re Anatomica(On
  Things Anatomical) in 1559.

203
Book De Re Anatomica

• Picture showing British anatomist John
  Banister(1533-1610) teaching visceral anatomy by
  reading De Re Anatomica of Colombo

204
Pulmonary circuit

• In his book he explained pulmonary circuit which
  paved the way for William Harveys discovery of
  circulation later.

205
Colombo treated Michelangelo

• The Paduan anatomist Colombo diagnosed and
  treated Michelangelo for nephrolithiasis

206
MICHELANGELO (1475- 1564)

• The Italian renaissance artist and sculptor had a
  life long interest in anatomy.
• He participated in public dissection and
  performed his own dissections.

207
Paintings in the ceiling of Sistine chapel of
Vatican
208
Anatomical drawings in the paintings

• Michelangelo cleverly disguised drawing of human
  brain which has remained unnoticed for 500 years
  cleverly concealed from the eyes of Pope Julius
  II and other worshipers and its has been coded to
  the clash between science and religion.

209
Brought into light

• The disguised anatomical drawings were brought
  into light by an article appeared in the journal
  Neurosurgery May 2010 issue- Official journal of
  the Congress of Neurological Sciences

210
The painting- Separation of Light from Darkness.
Brain Drawing
211
The painting- God creating Adam
212
The painting- Separation of Land and Water

• This painting depicts kidney which was familiar
  to him as he suffered from kidney stone
• The picture is in the shape of a bisected right
  kidney

213
GABRIELE FALLOPIO(1523-1562)
214
Italian anatomist

• He succeeded Realdo Colombo as Professor of
  Anatomy and Botany at Padua university.
• He extended Vesaliuss work and extended its
  details.

215
Observationes Anatomicae

• His exhaustive observations made during
  dissections of human cadavers are outlined in his
  book Observationes Anatomicae

216
Contributions

• He was the first to describe the Fallopian tubes
  as trumpets of the uterus

217

• He also first described the semicircular canals,
  and several nerves of head and face.

218
Facial canal

• The Fallopian canal or facial canal or aqueductus
  Fallopi, the longest bony canal for a nerve
  through which the facial nerve passes after
  leaving the auditory nerve is also named after
  him.

219
Died at young age

• Though he died when less than forty, he made his
  mark on anatomy for all time.

220
COSTANZO VAROLIO(1543-1575)

• Italian anatomist at Bologna university.

221
Brain dissection

• He was the first to dissect the brain from its
  base upward, in contrast with previous
  dissections which had been performed from the top
  downward.

222
Pons varollii

• He describe the Pons. Also known as Pons varolii

223
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY
224
NICOLAES TULP(1593-1674)

• Tulp was a mayor of Amsterdam, surgeon and city
  anatomist.

225
Lesson and dissection

• As a city anatomist he has to give anatomy lesson
  and dissection only once in a year performing
  them on victims of public hanging.

226
The painting Anatomy Lessons by Tulp
227
Painting by Rembrandt

• The painting by Rembrandt in 1632 depicts Tulp
  dissecting the fore arm and investigating the
  inferior and superior flexor tendons.

228
Contribution

• He discovered the ileocecal valve at the junction
  of large and small intestine, still known as
  Tulps valve.

229
WILLIAM HARVEY (1578-1657)
230
Studied at Padua

• Harvey was an English physician who travelled to
  Padua of Italy to study anatomy.

231
Blood circulation

• First person to describe completely and in detail
  the systematic circulation of blood.

232
Book De Motu Cordis

• He published his observations about blood
  circulation in his book Exercitatio Anatomica de
  Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus in 1628

233
English translation of the book

• Anatomical Exercise on the Motion of the Heart
  and Blood in Animals

234
Not seen capillaries

• The only incomplete point in his explanation of
  circulatory system is the capillaries.
• He could not see the capillaries, that connects
  the arteries to the veins, since their minute
  size lies below the limits of visual acuity.
• He had no access, and perhaps, no knowledge of
  existence of microscope.

235
Embryology

• Harvey in 1651 wrote the book on embryology De
  Generatione AnimaliumOn the Generation of
  Animals.
• He is the first to suggest that humans and other
  animals are reproduced via fertilization.

236
Dissection of fathers and sisters bodies

• Harvey dissected the bodies of his father,
  sister, and his cousins husband.

237
Mentioning of body parts

• Although these anatomical dissections were
  conducted privately, Harvey mentioned them in his
  lectures.
• In his lectures he mentioned the huge size of the
  colon he removed from his fathers abdomen and
  the heavy weight of his sisters spleen.

238
Attitude towards dissection

• The dissection of the bodies of family members
  suggests the considerable extent to which Harvey
  had become able to divorce himself from corpse.

239
Royal physician

• He became royal physician to
• King James I and later to King Charles I.

240
Died in 1657

• Tomb of Harvey

241
Thomas Willis(1621-1675)

• Physician of England who played an important part
  in the history of anatomy and neurology.

242
Cerebri Anatome-1664

• His book Cerebri Anatome coined the term
  neurology.
• Willis is known as father of neuroscience

243
Pathologicae Cerebri

• In 1667 he published Pathologicae Cerebri et
  Nervosi Generis Specimen an important work on
  the pathology of brain.

244
Circle of Willis

• The circle of Willis, a part of the brain was his
  discovery.

245
Numbers to cranial nerves

• He was the first to number the cranial nerves.

246
Reflex action

• He was the first to use the term the reflex
  action.

247
Diabetes Mellitus

• Willis coined the term mellitus ( honey sweet) in
  diabetes mellitus.

248
Founder member

• He was a founder member of Royal Society of
  London.

249
INVENTION OF MICROSCOPE

• During the Renaissance occurred the inventions of
  printing, gunpowder, compass and microscope.

250
Microscope

• In 1590 Dutch spectacle makers, Zacharias Janssen
  and his son Hans, made first microscope by
  placing two lenses in a tube.

251
Robert Hooke

• Robert Hook of England improved the compound
  microscope.

252
Cell

• Hooke in his book Micrographia coined the word
  cell in 1665 which he observed in cork.

253
Anton van Leeuwenhoek

• Leeuwenhoek(lay-you-wen-hook) of Holland
  developed the simple microscope in 1674.

254
Very simple device

• His simple device had only one powerful
  magnifying glass with the entire length of only 4
  inches.

255
Microorganisms

• Using his simple handcrafted microscope he was
  the first to see the single celled organisms,
  which he originally referred to as animalcules,
  which we now refer to as microorganisms.
• His drawing of animalcule

256
Founder of microbiology

• He was the first person to record microscopic
  observations of muscle fibers, bacteria and
  spermatozoa

257
Letters

• He has not written any book.
• But he wrote letters to the Royal Society of
  London which published them in their journal
  Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.

258
Died in 1723

• 
  Tomb

259
MARCELLO MALPIGHI(1628-1694)

• An Italian anatomist of university of Bologna.
• Malpighi (mahl-pee-gee) was born in 1628, the
  year in which William Harvey published his land
  mark book De Motu Cordis.

260
Founder of microscopic anatomy

• For almost 40 years he used the microscope to
  study the anatomical structures of plants,
  insects and human organs.

261
Discovery of capillaries

• Although William Harvey had correctly inferred
  the capillaries, he had never seen it.
• It was reserved for Malpighi who first saw tiny
  microtubules and named capillaries in 1661 in the
  lungs of frog.

262
Letters

• The discovery of capillaries was given to the
  world in the form of two letters De Pulmonibus
  ,which included in his book Opera Omnia,

263
Many firsts

• Malpighi used microscope to discover many
  firsts
• First person to see the capillaries.
• First histologist.

264
Comparative study of liver

• The first comparative study of liver, from the
  snail through the fishes, reptiles and mammals up
  to man.

265
Red blood cells

• He observed a host of red atoms-red blood cells.

266
Microscopic embryology

• His detailed observations of chick embryo and the
  book De Formatione Pulli in Ovo laid the
  foundation for microscopic embryology.

267
Papillae of tongue

• He described the papillae of the tongue.

268
Spleen

• He identified the spleen as an organ, not a gland.

269
Nerve fibers

• He found that nerves and spinal cord both
  consisted of bundles of nerve fibers.

270
Silk worm

• He discovered that silk worm had no lungs but
  breathed through a row of holes located on the
  side of their bodies.De Bombyce

271
Plant anatomy

• He also studied little vessels in wood and he
  published Anatome Plantarum

272
Family Malpighiaceae

• The great Swedish botanist Linnaeus named the
  genus Malpighia in honor of Malpighis work with
  plants.

273
Names associated with Malpighi

• One of the layers of the skin is called as
  Malpighian layer.

274
Malpighian body of the kidney
275
Malpighian tubule in the excretory system of
insects
276
Malpighian corpuscles or splenic nodules
277
Fellow of Royal Society

• First Italian to be elected a Fellow of Royal
  Society of London.
• When a fire destroyed his microscope in 1684, the
  society compensated him and sent him new lenses.

278
Died in 1694

• In accordance with his wishes an autopsy was
  performed.
• His tomb in Bologna

279
ANATOMICAL THEATER
280
Public dissection

• Anatomical dissections in the 1600 were open to
  the public and anatomical theaters were formed to
  allow people to come and watch dissections
  through pubic notices and wall posters

281
Notice for public dissection
282
Tickets

• Exorbitantly priced tickets of admission were
  sold to the wealthy.

283
During winter

• The performance of public dissections were
  scheduled during cold weather of winter because
  of perishable nature of cadaver.

284
University of Padua 1594

• First permanent anatomy theater was built in
  Padua- Italy, which could hold 300 people.

285
Still can be visited

• The theater had been used for 278 years before it
  became a museum in 1872.
• The theater can still be visited today.

286
University of Leiden-1597

• The second one was built at the university of
  Leiden, Italy.

287
Dissection table

• The theater was equipped with a rotating table
  which made it possible to turn the tabletop
  toward the position of sunrays.

288
University of Bologna1637

• The third one was built at university of Bologna,
  Italy.

289
FREDERIK RUYSCH(1638-1731)

• A Dutch anatomist and botanist, studied medicine
  at university of Leiden, Italy.
• His chief skill was the preparation of specimens
  in a secret liquor.
• He prepared the first anatomical specimens.

290
Access to the bodies

• As a instructor to midwives and doctor to the
  court, he had ample access to the bodies of
  stillborn and dead infants.

291
Artistic work

• He made artistic arrangement of body parts and
  fetal skeletons.

292
Botanical background

• The botanical background's were made from
  injected and hardened veins and arteries for
  trees and more ramified tissue of lungs and
  smaller vessels for grass

293
City anatomist

• From 1666 he became city anatomist of
  Amsterdam(like Dr Tulp) and gave anatomy
  dissection and lecture, till his death.

294
Sold his collections

• He sold his collections to the Russian Tsar Peter
  the Great, in 1717.
• Several of the items are still held in the Museum
  of St. Petersburg.
• The 79 year old Ruysch began to set up a new
  collection.

295
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
296
GIOVANNI BATTISTA MORGAGNI(1682-1771)

• FATHER OF ANATOMICAL PATHOLOGY

297
Italian anatomist

• Taught anatomy at university of Padua for 56
  years.
• His work Adversaria Anatomica is a series of
  researches on fine anatomy.

298
Pathological anatomy

• Earlier anatomists established the normal human
  anatomy.
• Morgagni explored the origin and seat of diseases
  that caused the changes observable in the cadaver
  at the postmortem autopsy.

299
Book on pathological anatomy

• After 640 autopsy dissections he wrote the book
  De Sedibus et Causis Morborum per Anatomen
  Indagatis which became the foundation of
  pathological anatomy.

300
English translation

• Seats and Causes of Disease Investigated by Means
  of Anatomy.

301
First person

• To describe
• Disease of the heart valve
• Record the first instance of heart block
• Tuberculosis
• Cirrhosis of the liver
• Prove that lesion in stroke occurs on the
  opposite from the resulting paralysis.

302
30 anatomical terms associated with his name

• Four examples
• Morgagni foramen

303
Morgagni hydatid
304
Morgagnis column
305
Morgagni cataract
306
JOSEPH LIEUTAUD (1703-1780)

• SURGICAL ANATOMY began with the book of Essais
  Anatomiques by French anatomist Lieutaud.

307
WILLIAM HUNTER(1718-1783)

• British anatomist, obstetrician, and avid
  collector of antiques and coins.

308
Individual dissection

• He introduced the practice of providing
  individual medical students with cadavers for
  dissection.

309
Obstetrics

• His work and the book Anatomy of the Human
  Gravid Uterus(1774) removed obstetrics from the
  purview of midwives and established it as a
  branch of medicine.

310
Popular anatomy teacher

• He taught anatomy at Royal College of Surgeons in
  London

311
Hunterian museum

• He opened the Hunterian museum at the Royal
  College of Surgeons with 13000 specimens of
  natural history, coins, books as well as
  anatomical and pathological specimens.

312
Skeleton of tallest man

• The museum contains the skeleton of the Charles
  Byrne the tallest man of Ireland.

313
Discovered the anatomical drawings of Da Vinci

• The anatomical drawings of da Vinci were
  discovered by Hunter at Royal Library of Windsor
  Castle.

314
NINETEENTH CENTURY
315
FIRST BODY DONATION

• Jeremy Bentham(1748-1832), the British
  philosopher and social reformer donated his body
  in 1832.

316
University college of London

• Bentham was one of the founders of university
  college of London.

317
Body dissected

• As requested in his will Benthams body was
  dissected as a part of public anatomy lecture.

318
Auto-icon at university college of London

• Auto-icon is a wooden cabinet that contains
  Bentham's preserved skeleton, dressed in his own
  clothes, and surmounted by a wax head.

319
Auto-icon in college meeting

• Earlier it was brought to meeting of college
  council, where it is listed as present but not
  voting

320
SIR CHARLES BELL(1774-1842)

• Scottish anatomist, surgeon and artist.

321
Anatomy to artists

• He taught anatomy to artists and for instructions
  he wrote the book Essays on the Anatomy of
  Expression in Painting

322
Contribution to neurology

• Bells book Idea of A New Anatomy of the Brain
  has been called the Magna Charta of Neurology

323
Motor and sensory roots

• Bell announced that anterior roots of spinal
  nerves are motor, while posterior roots are
  sensory.

324
Book on anatomy

• Along with his brother John Bell who was also a
  surgeon and anatomist Charles Bell wrote the book
  Anatomy of Human Body

325
Oil paintings by Bell

• At the battle of Waterloo of Napoleon Bell
  operated on wounded and produced the oil
  paintings of wounds.

326
Names associated with Charles Bell

• Bells nerve
• The long thoracic nerve

327
Bells palsy

• Paralysis of the facial muscle

328
Bells phenomenon

• Up ward movement of the eye and eyelid when a
  person with Bells palsy tries to close the eyes.

329
Bells spasm

• Involuntary twitching of the facial muscles.

330
Bell- Magendie law

• States that the anterior branch of spinal nerve
  roots contain only motor fibers and the posterior
  roots contain only sensory fibers.

331
JAN EVANGELISTA PURKINJE(1787-1869)

• Proper Czech spelling is Purkyne.
• Czech anatomist and physiologist

332
Worlds first physiology department

• He created worlds first Department of Physiology
  in 1839 at the university of Breslau, Prussia and
  world's first physiology laboratory in 1842.

333
Protoplasm

• Purkinje introduced the term protoplasm into
  scientific literature.
• He described the contents of animal embryo using
  the term protoplasm.
• To him the term meant first formed, but
  eventually it took on more a general meaning, the
  living material inside the cell.

334
Origin of the term protoplasm

• The selection of the term protoplasm came about
  because of his early religious training.
• In an ancient manuscript there was an old church
  song in which the first man, Adam was described
  as created from Protoplast

335
Plasma

• He introduced the term plasma.

336
Microtome

• Purkinje was the first to use microtome.

337
Preparation of tissue sample

• Purkinje was the first to use glacial acetic
  acid, potassium dichromate, in the preparation of
  tissue samples for microscopic examination.

338
Sweat glands

• Purkinje first discovered sweat glands in 1833

339
Finger prints

• Purkinje was the first to classify finger prints
  into patterns

340
Purkinje cells or neurons

• Large branching neurons in the cerebellum

341
Purkinje fibers

• Which conducts impulse from natural pacemaker to
  heart.

342
Vesicles of Purkinje

• The germinal vesicle or nucleus in the birds egg.

343
Purkinje shift

• As light decreases, red object appear to fade
  faster than blue ones.

344
Died in 1869
345
FUGITIVE SHEETS

• Fugitive sheets were published throughout Europe
  till the late 17th century.

346
Pop up device

• The printed sheets depict the human body, using a
  pop up device of super imposed flaps, to display
  the internal anatomy.

347
Mimicking anatomy

• The fugitive sheet thus mimics the act of
  dissection.

348
BODY SNATCHING(1800)

• Body snatching or grave robbery is a part of
  history of anatomy.

349
Demand for corpses

• Thousands of corpses a year disappeared from
  burial grounds and sold to dissectors in England
  and Scotland.
• Scotland medical students could pay for their
  tuition with corpses rather than coins.

350
Protection

• Cemeteries of the rich were protected with cast
  irons, and watch towers were also constructed in
  the graveyard.

351
The case of Burke and Hare 1828

• In 1828 William Burke and William Hare in
  Edinburg murdered 16 people(West Port Murders)

352
Sold the bodies

• Burke and Hare sold the bodies to Robert Knox,
  the anatomist.

353
Burke hanged

• They were caught in 1828.Hare was granted
  immunity from prosecution.
• Burke was hanged, after which he was publically
  dissected at the Edinburg Medical college.

354
Burkes skeleton

• Burkes skeleton is now displayed at Edinburgs
  museum.

355
Business card case

• A business card case was made from his tanned
  skin and is displayed at Edinburgs museum.

356
Anthropodermic book

• This is a antropodermic book Executed 28 Jan
  1829 bound in the skin and flesh of Burke.

357
New verb

• A new verb was coined for the murder to burke
  killing by sitting on the chest, and suffocating
  them by putting a hand over their nose and mouth.

358
Anatomy Act 1832

• To avoid the problem of grave robbery and murders
  for corpses Anatomy Act 1832 was enacted in
  England,
• The act allowed the unclaimed bodies to be turned
  over to medical schools.

359
Warren Anatomical museum-1847

• Founded by Johri Collins Warren of Harvard
  Medical School.

360
Most treasured item of the museum

• Skull and tampering iron of Phineas Gage.

361
Phineas Gage

• A railroad worker, who had a tampering iron rod
  blown through his head survived to tell the tale.

362
Change in personality

• The accident damaged his frontal lobe, which
  resulted in personality