Skinner

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Skinners Analysis of Motivation Ten
Applications for Improving Autism Treatment

• Mark L. Sundberg, Ph.D., BCBA-D
• (www.marksundberg.com)

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Motivation

• Motivation is a major topic in psychology,
  especially applied psychology
• A Google search of motivation produced 257
  million hits
• 42 million for reinforcement
• 7 million for stimulus control
• 97,000 for discriminative stimulus (SD)
• Behaviorists are rarely credited for any positive
  contribution to the study of motivation
• In fact, discussions of behavioral approaches to
  motivation are usually misguided and pejorative
  (e.g., Dan Pinks TED presentation, Son-Rise vs.
  ABA)

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A Behavioral Analysis of Motivation

• An often missed element of Skinnerian psychology
  is that motivational control is an antecedent
  variable that is different from stimulus control
  and reinforcement (Skinner, 1938, 1953, 1957)
• In Behavior of Organisms (Skinner, 1938) Skinner
  devoted two full chapters to motivation Chapter
  9 titled Drive and Chapter 10 titled Drive and
  Conditioning The Interaction of Two Variables
• Science and Human Behavior (1953) had three
  chapters on motivation
• Keller and Schoenfeld (1950) stated, A drive
  motivation is not a stimulusa drive has
  neither the status, nor the functions, nor the
  place in a reflex behavior that a stimulus
  hasit is not, in itself either eliciting,
  reinforcing, or discriminative (p. 276)
• Keller and Schoenfeld suggested the term
  establishing operation be used for drive to
  distinguish it from the various types of stimuli

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A Behavioral Analysis of Motivation

• The study of motivation was not carried through
  to Applied Behavior Analysis in the 1960s, 70s,
  80s
• Michael (1993) pointed out, In applied behavior
  analysis the concept of reinforcement seems to
  have taken over much of the subject matter that
  was once considered a part of the topic of
  motivation (p. 191)
• Applied research on motivation is virtually
  nonexistent in the first 20 years of the Journal
  of Applied Behavior Analysis (JABA)
• The Journal contained no entries for
  establishing operations or motivation in the
  first cumulative index (1968-1978)
• During the next 10 years (1979-1988) there were
  still no entries for establishing operation.
  However, there were 5 entries for motivation,
  but they all involved motivation as a
  consequence, rather than as an antecedent
  variable

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A Behavioral Analysis of Motivation

• In addition, the experimental analysis of
  motivation is mostly absent from the 57 years of
  research in the Journal of the Experimental
  Analysis of Behavior (JEAB)
• Michael (1993) noted that the basic notion MO
  plays only a small role in the approach currently
  identified as behavior analysis (p. 191)
• But most importantly, the neglect of motivation
  leaves a gap in our understanding of operant
  functional relations (Michael, 1993, p. 191)

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A Behavioral Analysis of Motivation

• Skinner discussed the topic of motivation in
  every chapter of the book Verbal Behavior (1957),
  usually with his preferred terminology of
  deprivation, satiation, and aversive
  stimulation
• Thirty points about motivation from Skinners
  book Verbal Behavior (Sundberg, 2013)

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Thirty Points About Motivation from Skinners
Book Verbal Behavior (Sundberg, 2013)
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A Behavioral Analysis of Motivation

• Skinner discussed the topic of motivation in
  every chapter of the book Verbal Behavior (1957),
  usually with his preferred terminology of
  deprivation, satiation, and aversive
  stimulation
• Thirty points about motivation from Skinners
  book Verbal Behavior (Sundberg, 2013)
• Jack Michael and colleagues have published
  various refinements and extensions of Skinners
  analysis (Laraway, Snycerski, Michael, Poling,
  2003 Michael, 1982, 1988, 1993, 2000, 2004,
  2007)
• Discriminative variables (SDs) are related to
  the differential availability of an effective
  form of reinforcement given a particular type of
  behavior motivative variables are related to the
  differential reinforcing effectiveness of
  environmental events (Michael, 1993 p. 193)
  (see also Michael, 1982)

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Establishing Operations (Michael, 1993)
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A Behavioral Analysis of Motivation

• Motivation, in lay terms, is often talked about
  as wanting or needing things or events
• For example, food deprivation
• There are two behavioral effects involved
• 1) the value of food becomes stronger
• 2) food seeking behaviors are evoked
• Or, being highly motivated to search the internet
  for Club Penguin
• Two behavioral effects
• 1) the value of a computer and a website address
  becomes stronger
• 2) web searching behaviors are evoked
• When values are low (satiation, or website found)
  behavior is abated

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A Behavioral Analysis of MotivationMichaels
(2007) Framework

• An increase in the value of food or a website url
  is termed an establishing operation (EO) while a
  decrease in the value is termed an abolishing
  operation (AO)
• The term motivating operations (MOs) is an
  omnibus term for these value changing effects
  (EOs and AOs)
• The value changes then in turn affect behavior
  (value-altering effect)
• EOs evoke specific behaviors, AOs abate specific
  behaviors (behavior-altering effect)
• Michaels definition of motivation any
  environmental variable that (a) alters the
  effectiveness of some stimulus, object, or event
  as a reinforcer and (b) alters the current
  frequency of all behavior that has been
  reinforced by that stimulus, object, or event
  (2007, p. 375)

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Michaels Chapter on Motivating Operations in
Cooper et al. (2007)
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A Behavioral Analysis of MotivationSummary

• MOs constitute a separate basic principle of
  behavior
• MOs are antecedent events, not consequences
• All types of MOs are separate from stimulus
  control
• MOs and SDs frequently occur together as forms of
  multiple control

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The Basic Principles of Operant Behavior

• Stimulus Control (SD) Response
  Reinforcement
• Motivating Operation (MO) Punishment
• Extinction
• Conditioned reinforcement
  Conditioned punishment
• Intermittent reinforcement

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A Behavioral Analysis of MotivationSummary

• All types of MOs are separate from, but related
  to, reinforcement
• MOs effects are separate from schedules of
  reinforcement effects
• Aversive stimulation can function as MOs
• Aversive stimulation as an antecedent (an MO) is
  different from aversive stimulation as a
  consequence (punishment)
• Escape and avoidance are MO effects, not SD
  effects
• MOs may involve unconditioned or conditioned
  variables
• A single MO can control large repertoires (e.g.,
  revenge)
• MOs are typically private events
• Collateral behavior can help to determine MO
  level (e.g., reaching)
• Much of what is termed emotion involves MOs
  (SHB, chap. 10)

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The Application of Establishing Operations
(Sundberg, 1993)
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Application 1 MOs as Antecedents Provide an
Additional Tool for Assessment and Intervention

• MOs play a significant role in multiple facets of
  the assessment and intervention process for
  children with autism
• MOs can be manipulated as an independent variable
  (like reinforcement, SDs, schedules, etc.)
• MOs in relation to language acquisition and
  academics (e.g., math)
• MOs in relation to social behavior (e.g., peer
  interaction)
• MOs in relation to problem behaviors (e.g.,
  aggression)
• MOs in relation to learning barriers (e.g.,
  scrolling in manding)
• MOs in relation to group skills (e.g., aversive
  events evoke escape)
• MOs in relation to self-help skills (e.g., clean
  hands)
• MOs in relation to nonverbal skills (e.g., fine
  motor)

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Application 2 MOs as the Primary Antecedents
for Manding

• All mands are controlled by motivating operations
  (MOs)
• There must be an MO at strength to conduct mand
  training
• MOs vary in strength across time, and the effects
  may be temporary
• MOs must be either captured or created to conduct
  mand training
• MOs may have an instant or gradual onset or
  offset
• Instructors must be able to reduce existing
  negative behavior controlled by MOs
• Instructors must be able to identify the presence
  and strength of MOs, and capitalize upon them for
  teaching opportunities
• Instructors must know how to bring verbal
  behavior under the control of MOs

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Application 3 Demand can Weaken a Motivating
Operation (MO)

• There is a direct relation between the value (MO)
  of a reinforcer and how much work (response
  effort) is required to obtain that reinforcement
  (e.g., Alling Poling, 1994)
• Too much of a work demand can reduce the strength
  of an MO
• An iPad may be reinforcing if it is
  noncontingent, but less so if work is required
• Dont be dependent on rfmt. surveys and
  preference assessments
• Sitting, attending, and responding to task
  demands can be quite a high response requirement
  for some children (video Julian)

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Application 3 Demand can Weaken a Motivating
Operation (MO)

• There is a direct relation between the value (MO)
  of a reinforcer and how much work (response
  effort) is required to obtain that reinforcement
  (e.g., Alling Poling, 1994)
• Too much of a work demand can reduce the strength
  of an MO
• An iPad may be reinforcing if it is
  noncontingent, but less so if work is required
• Dont be dependent on rfmt. surveys and
  preference assessments
• Sitting, attending, and responding to task
  demands can be quite a high response requirement
  for some children (video Julian)
• Staff must anticipate and account for MO value
  changes
• Many intervention strategies are available, for
  example
• identify the conditions under which a change is
  observed
• start with a low response requirement and high MO
  value
• gradually increase the response requirement

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Application 4 Aversive MOs as Antecedents

• Learned aversive motivators are ubiquitous in
  everyday behavior
• We all encounter bad/undesirable things and
  events we dont want
• Aversive stimuli increase the value of their
  termination and evoke behaviors that terminate
  the stimuli through negative reinforcement
• Michael terms these conditioned motivating
  operations reflexive (CMO-R)

Increased value of termination
Evokes escape- avoidance behavior
Remove aversive negative rfmt.
CMO-R
?
?
?
Tantrum, push materials to floor
Task delayed or removed negative rfmt.
Demand
Student wants to get away
?
?
?
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Application 4 Aversive MOsas Antecedents

• Adults, tasks, settings, demand, tone of voice,
  body movements, contexts, materials, problems,
  etc. can function as aversive MOs
• Possible CEO-R presence in DTT
• Teaching children how to handle or remove
  aversives appropriately
• Do not let the negative behavior delay or remove
  the aversive stimulus
• Do a curriculum analysis, mitigate the aversive,
  decrease the response effort
• Increase the reinforcement for responding when
  aversive MO is present
• Do not offer reinforcers following negative
  behaviors (remember what youre working for)

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Application 4 Aversive MOs as Antecedents
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Application 5 MOs can Compete With Each Other,
and Block or Distort Stimulus Control

• One MO can be more powerful than another MO
  (e.g., a stim. toy vs. social approval)
• MOs are sometimes so powerful they overpower SDs
  (blocking) (e.g., iPad, string, He does not
  listen to me)
• MOs can distort SDs (e.g., lying, exaggeration)
  (Brian Williams)
• Be aware of a students strong MOs and possible
  effects on him
• Be aware that table-top teaching may not
  adequately reflect an environment where there are
  competing MOs
• Systematically require SD responding when the
  competing EO is present (may be easiest to start
  with a relatively weak EO)
• Be aware that NET may inadvertently cater to
  powerful MOs
• Control MOs, dont let them control you

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Application 6 Using MOs to help Establish Other
Skills (Multiple control)

• We often learn new skills because of some MO to
  do so (e.g., new Lego set, new game, navigation
  system)
• Incorporating MOs along with SDs and
  reinforcement can enhance skill acquisition
  (e.g., Carroll Hesse, 1987)
• Learning to tact things a student is interested
  in
• Learning intraverbals about favorite topics
• Reading and writing about favorite topics
• MOs can help establish nonverbal skills as well
  (e.g., fine and gross motor skills, grooming
  skills)

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Application 7 Breaking Free from MO Control by
Using Generalized Conditioned Reinforcement

• MO control can get to be too strong (e.g., iPad,
  dinosaurs, OCD)
• generalized reinforcement destroys the
  possibility of control via specific
  deprivations. (Skinner, 1957, p. 212)
• we weaken the relation to any specific
  deprivation or aversive stimulation and set up a
  unique relation to a discriminative stimulus. We
  do this by reinforcing the response as
  consistently as possible in the presence of one
  stimulus with many different reinforcers or with
  a generalized reinforcer. The resulting control
  is through the stimulus. (Skinner, 1957, p. 84)
• Moving a mand to a tact or intraverbal through
  generalized reinforcement
• Also, use pictures, satiation, and competing MOs,
  low demand

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Application 8 Developing or Repairing Social
Skills

• Weak EOs for social interaction are a problem for
  many with autism (e.g., may not attend to peers
  or their interests)
• Negative behaviors may occur as barriers (e.g.,
  excessive manding, irrelevant IVs, verbal
  perseveration, weak listener repertoires)
• There are many complicated behavioral repertoires
  that fall under the rubric of social behavior
• Create MOs for verbal behavior with peers (e.g.,
  manding to peers)
• Create MOs for nonverbal behavior with peers
  (e.g., games, activities)
• Identify and amelioriate problematic CEO-Rs
  (e.g., avoiding peers)

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Application 9 Developing or Repairing
Self-help Skills

• Distinction between structural and functional
  self-help skills
• Why do you brush your teeth, shower, or carefully
  select clothing?
• The MOs that control your behaviors may have
  little effect on teenagers with autism
• MOs related to avoiding the social punishment of
  having body odor or bad breath
• MOs related to positive social reinforcement for
  a stylish look
• Creating MOs and assuring that target behaviors
  are under MO control rather than solely under the
  control of SDs
• Set up a play-date, meeting, event, contest,
  game, etc.
• Establish and link MOs to a self-checklist
• Use MOs to identify potential vocational
  directions
• Use MOs to teach community living skills

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Application 10 Asking Questions- Mands for
Information

• Asking a question is usually a mand, thus the
  source of control must be an MO
• The MO for information (verbal or nonverbal) must
  be the primary source of control (MO?ask
  AO?dont ask)
• The consequence must be the information, not
  edibles, tokens, etc.
• Questions are not developmentally appropriate
  until approximately a two-year linguistic level
• Must create or capture an EO (e.g., missing toy)
• Use prompts (e.g., echoic, textual), fade prompts
  (e.g., Wheres Elmo)
• Reinforcement for asking questions must be the
  information that corresponds with the EO
  (location of the toy)

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Conclusions

• Motivation is an extremely important aspect of
  human behavior
• Behavior analysis has a powerful formulation of
  motivation that has not been developed much in
  ABA
• There is a tremendous need for empirical research
  on the application of the MO to work with
  children with autism
• The applications to the treatment of children
  with autism are abundant, but it is up to us to
  develop them

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