AP Biology Exam Review

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AP Biology Exam Review

• Survey of the Kingdoms

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Taxonomy-based on phylogeny (evolutionary
relationships)

• Kingdom King
• Phylum Philip
• Class Cried
• Order Out
• Family For
• Genus Good
• Species Spaghetti

Carolus Linnaeus Binomial nomenclature Genus
species (scientific name) Systematics study of
relationships
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Viruses

• No scientific names because not living, unable to
  be classified
• Lytic or lysogenic life cycle
• In lysogenic cycle, latency provirus (if host
  cell not bacteria) or prophage (if host cell is
  bacteria)
• Can be retrovirus
• Viroids (naked RNA) and prions (naked protein)
  simpler than viruses but just as infectious

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Bacteria, Eubacteria, Archaebacteria, Monera

• Prokaryotes no nuclei, no organelles
• Unicellular
• Single naked chromosome
• Plasmids (small circular DNA) in some
• Flagella made of flagellin (debate of 92
  arrangement)
• Non-flagellated bacteria tumble, spin, glide

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Obtaining energy

• Photoautotroph/Chemoautotroph vs. Heterotroph
• Obligate aerobes vs. facultative anaerobe vs.
  obligate anaerobe

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Unique characteristics of archaebacteria

• Cell walls lack peptidoglycan.
• Ribosomes more similar to eukaryotes than
  eubacteria.
• Plasma membrane made of lipids different than
  most other organisms.
• Extreme habitats methanogens, extrene
  halophiles, thermoacidophiles

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Classifying eubacteria

• Mode of nutrition
• Ability to make endospores (resistant bodies with
  DNA/RNA and durable wall)
• Motility
• Shape cocci, bacilli, spirilla
• Gram stain technique G (peptidoglycan), G-
  (lipopolysaccharide)

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Common groups of bacteria

• Cyanobacteria phycobilin pigments, heterocyst
  cells that produce nitrogen-fixing enzyme
• Chemosynthetic bacteria autotrophs nitrifying
  bacteria (nitrite ? nitrate)
• Nitrogen-fixing bacteria heterotrophs
  mutualistic relationship with plants live in
  nodules of bean plants
• Spirochetes coiled bacteria, internal flagella
  (within cell wall layers)

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Protists

• Most likely convergent evolution producing
  similar characteristics within protists
• Evolved through endosymbiosis
• Eukaryotes
• Algae all with chlorophyll a and other accessory
  pigments
• Protozoa heterotrophs
• Fungus-like saprobic, filaments, spore-bearing
  bodies

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Algae

• Euglenophyta no cellulose cell wall (pellicle
  protein strips), 3 flagella, heterotrophic
  without light, eyespot for phototaxis
• Dinoflagellata 2 flagella, some bioluminescent
  (red tide), produce nerve toxin that concentrate
  in filter feeders
• Chrysophyta golden algae
• Bacillariophyta diatoms, tests (shells) made of
  silica

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Algae

• Chlorophyta green algae, cellulose cell walls,
  variation in sexual reproduction (isogamous,
  anisogamous, oogamous), some multicellular or
  colonial, ancestors of plants
• Phaeophyta brown algae, multicellular,
  flagellated sperm (seaweeds, kelps)
• Rhodophyta red algae, red accessory pigments
  phycobilins, multicellular, nonflagellated gametes

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Protozoa

• Foraminifera tests (shells) of calcium
  carbonate, marine sediments with forams indicates
  underlying deposits of petroleum
• Rhizopods amoebas, move with pseudopods
• Zoomastigophora zooflagellates, cause diseases
  (Trypanosoma)
• Sporozoa animal parasite, uses more than one
  host to complete life cycle (Plasmodium)
• Ciliophora paramecium, most with cilia

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Fungus-like protistan molds

• Cellular slime mold Acrasiomycota, amoebas feed
  on bacteria, when not enough food ? aggregates
  into slug
• Plasmodial slime mold Myxomycota, grows as
  single mass, grows stalks up when environment
  dries out to release spores
• Oomycota water molds

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Fungus

• Hyphae filaments
• Mycelium mass of hyphae
• Septate (cross walls) vs. aseptate (no cross
  walls, aka coenocytic)
• Chitin cell walls
• Parasites or saprobes
• Haustoria parasitic hyphae that penetrates the
  host

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Temporary fungal 2N stage

• Plasmogamy fusing cellas fromt wo different
  fungal strains ? dikaryon
• Karyogamy fusing of two nuclei
• Meiosis immediately retores 1N state

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Asexual fungal reproduction

• Fragmentation breaking apart hyphae
• Budding small part of hyphae pinched off
• Asexual spores sporangiospores (borne on
  sac-like sporangia) and conidia (formed at tips
  of hyphae)

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Fungal groups

• Zygomycota bread mold
• Ascomycota yeasts, mildews, truffles
• Basidiomycota mushrooms
• Deuteromycota imperfect fungus, Penicillium
• Lichens fungus and algae liking it together
• Mycorrhizae mutualistic relationships of fungus
  and plant roots

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Plant characteristics

• Except for Bryophytes (mosses), 2N dominant
• Cuticle
• Vascular systems (reduces water dependency) of
  xylem and phloem
• Flagellated sperm needing water ? sperm in pollen
  grains
• Unprotected gametophytes ? ovary protecting
  gametophytes
• Seasonal adaptation deciduous vs. evergreen

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Bryophytes

• Mosses, liverworts, hornworts
• Male gametangium antheridium has sperm
• Female gametangium archegonium has egg
• Lack vascular tissue
• Small and close to water

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Tracheophytes (vascular plants)

• Lycophyta wood trees of Carboniferous period,
  epiphytes, club shaped spore cones caleld
  strobili
• Sphenophyta horsetails
• Pterophyta ferns, sporangia clusters called sori

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Seeded plants

• Microsporangia produce microspores (male spores)
  ? pollen grains (tube cells, 2 sperm)
• Macrosporangia produces female spores ? 1
  megaspore (egg), 2 polar bodies ? all contained
  in ovule

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Coniferophyta - gymnosperms

• Pine trees
• Juniper trees
• Redwood trees

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Anthophyta - angiosperms

• Flowers
• Carpel/pistil female parts of stigma, style,
  ovary
• Stamen male parts of anther, filament
• Petals modified leaves to attract pollinators
• Sepals modified leaves to protect flower

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Angiosperm advancements

• Pollinators required
• Ovules inside ovary
• Ovary develops into fruit with seeds (mature
  ovule).

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Angiosperm fertilization

• Pollen on stigma, developing pollen tube that
  extends to the micropyle (opening of ovule).
• Sperm egg ? zygote ? embryo
• Sperm 2 polar bodies ? endosperm
• double fertilization

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Animal characteristics

• Multicellular
• Heterotrophic
• 2N dominant
• Motile at some point of its life cycle
• Embryonic development stage where 2 or 3 tissue
  layers form

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• Tissue complexity eumetazoan (most animals with
  2-3 tissue layers ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm)
  vs. parazoa (true tissues but no organs)
• Body symmetry radial vs. bilateral
• Cephalization

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Variations that shaped the animal kingdom

• Gastrovascular cavity guts, 2 openings designate
  digestive tract
• Coelom in embryonic stage, cavity called coelom
  can develop from mesoderm (acoelomate,
  pseudocoelomate, coelomate)
• Segmentation same and repeated or modified with
  specialized functions

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Variations that shaped the animal kingdom

• Protostome vs. deuterostome early embryonic cell
  divisions (cleavage)

Protosome Angled cleavage Mouth first Coelom develops from tissues at the sides of internal cavity (archenteron) Deuterostome Straight cleavage Anus first Coelom develops from outpouch of archenteron walls
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Animals - invertebrates

• Porifera sponges, filter feeders, osculum,
  amoebocytes, spicules
• Cnidaria jellifish, hydrozoans, sea anemones,
  corals, medusa vs. polyp body shape
• Platyhelminthes flatworms, flukes, tapeworms,
  proglottids (secondarily developed segments),
  acoelomate

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Animals - invertebrates

• Nematoda roundworms, pseudocoelomate, complete
  digestive tract, mouth and anus!
• Rotifera multicellular, pseudocoelomate,
  complete digestive tract, filter feeders
• Mollusca snails, bivalves, octopuses, squids
  body made of foot, mantle (secretes shell),
  radula
• Annelids segmented worms, leeches, earthworms

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Animals - invertebrates

• Arthropoda spider, insects, crustaceans, jointed
  appendages, chitin exoskeleton, metamorphosis vs.
  nymph life cycle
• Echinodermata sea stars, sea urchins, sand
  dollars, deuterostomes, complete digestive tract

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Animals chordata

• Notochord dorsal, flexible rod for support ?
  backbone
• Dorsal hollow nerve cord basis of central
  nervous system (brain, spinal cord)
• Pharyngeal gill slits channels across pharynx to
  the outside body ? gills or disappears
• Muscular tail extends beyond digestive tract ?
  develops or disappears

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Animals - vertebrates

• Agnatha jawless fish
• Chondricthyes cartilaginous fish
• Osteichthyes bony fish
• Amphibians frogs, salamanders
• Reptiles crocs, alligators, turtles
• Aves birds
• Mammals primates, dogs, cats, etc.