Title: Ultimate AP BIOLOGY REVIEW
1Ultimate AP BIOLOGY REVIEW
2Question 1
- Isotopes Isotopes are atoms with the same number
of protons but differ in number of neutrons
e.g., a carbon atom has six protons but may have
more or less than usual six neutrons - Valence Shell Outer shell of an atom. Atoms with
few electrons in their valence shell tend to have
more free electrons since these valence electrons
are more loosely bound to the nucleus.
3Continue 1
- Ionic Bonds Ionic bonds form when electrons are
transferred from one atom to another. Losing or
gaining electrons, atoms participating in ionic
reactions fill outer shells, and are more stable. - Covalent Bonds Covalent bonds result when two
atoms share electrons so each atom has octet of
electrons in the outer shell. . Structural
formulas represent shared atom as a line between
two atoms e.g., single covalent bond (H-H),
double covalent bond (OO)Three dimensional shape
of molecules is not represented by structural
formulas but shape is critical in understanding
the biological action of molecules action of
insulin, HIV receptors, etc.
4Question 2
- Hydrogen Bond forms between
- slightly positive hydrogen atom of one molecule
and slightly negative atom in another or the same
molecule.
5Question 3
- pH is a measure of
- How acidic or basic a solution is.
- Acidic Solution has more H ions
- Basic Solution has more OH ions
6Question 4
- Buffer is
- keep pH steady and within normal limits in living
organisms..
7Question 5
- Isomer is
- Are molecules or molecular compounds that are
similar in that they have the same molecular
formula, however have different arrangements of
the atoms or groups of atoms (functional groups)
involved. - Example Fructose and glucose (C6H12O6) same
molecular formula but different arrangements
8Question 6
- -OH Hydroxyl
- CO Carbonyl
- -COOH Carboxyl
- -NH2 Amino group
- -SH Sulfhydryl group
- -OPO3 Phosphate group
9Question 7
- Hydrolysis Reaction
- Reaction that breaks down compounds by the
addition of H2O - Dehydration synthesis reaction
- Reaction in which two compounds are brought
together with H2O released as a product - Endergonic reaction
- A reaction that requires the input of energy to
occur - ABenergy? C
- Exergonic reaction
- A reaction that gives off energy as a product
- AB?Energy C
- Redox reaction
- A reaction involving the transfer of electrongs
10Question 8
- General formula for monosaccharides are CnH2nOn
- Example C6H12O6 (Glucose)
- Simple Sugar
- Function Sugar found in Nucleic Acid
- Glucose Sugar for the body
- ATP Cell Energy
11Question 9
- Polysaccharides Carbohydrate containing 3 or
more monosaccharides - Storage form of energy
- Structural material in and around cells
- Difference between
- Glycogen Glucose molecules linked together
(animal energy storage) - Starch Glucose linked together (Plants energy
storage) - Cellulose composed of glucose molecules
formation of cell walls - Chitin Glucose molecules joined together-
Arthopods exoskeleton
12Question 10
- Structural Components of the following
- Fats Lipids made by combining glycerol and three
fatty acids. Used as long-term energy stores in
cells - Phospholipids is a lipid formed by combining a
glycerol molecule with two fatty acids and a
phosphate group bilayered structure component
in cell membrane - Steroids are lipids composed of four carbon
rings that look like chicken wire. - Examples Cholesterol, sex hormones
?Cholesterol
Testosterone ?
13Question 11
- Protein Chains
- Primary Structure Sequence of amino acids to
form a polypeptide chain (protein) - Secondary Structure 3-D arrangement of a protein
caused by hydrogen bonding at regular intervals
along the polypeptide backbone - Tertiary Structure 3-D arrangement of protein
caused by interactions among the various R groups
of the amino acids involved. - Quaternary structure The arrangement of separate
polypeptide subunits into a single protein
14Question 12
- Enzymes are proteins that act as organic catalyst
(speed up reaction by lowering the energy
(activation energy) needed for the reaction to
take place but are not used up in the reaction.
15Continue 12
- Induced-fit model of enzyme-substrate
interaction describes the active site of an
enzyme as specific for a particular substrate
that fits its shape. - Allosteric enzyme An allosteric enzyme is an
enzyme that contains a region to which small,
regulatory molecules ("effectors") may bind in
addition to and separate from the substrate
binding site and thereby affect the catalytic
activity. On binding the effector, the catalytic
activity of the enzyme towards the substrate may
be enhanced, in which case the effector is an
activator, or reduced, in which case it is a
de-activator or inhibitor
16Continue 12
- Four ways enzymes can be affected
- Temperature
- pH
- Concentration of the substrate
- Concentration of the enzyme involved
17Question 13
- Prokaryotic Simple cell
- No nucleus
- Nucleoid Genetic material
- No membrane bond organelles
- Eukaryotic is more complex
- Nucleus
- Membrane bound organelles
18Question 14
- Ribosomes protein synthesis
- Smooth ER lipids synthesis, detoxification, and
carbohydrate metabolism - Rough ER Ribosome are attached proteins are
produced - Golgi apparatus proteins, lipids, and other
macromolecules sent to the Golgi to be modified
by the addition of sugars and other molecules to
form glycoproteins products form vesicles - Mitochondria powerhouseATP is made here
- Lysosome Digestion center
- Nucleus Control center, contains DNA (genetic
material) - Vacuole Storage (Plants have a larger structure)
- Chloroplast Plants only site for photosynthesis
19Question 15
- Fluid Mosaic Model the membrane consist of a
phospholipid bilayer with proteins of various
lengths and sizes interspersed with cholesterol
among the phospholipids. - Two types of proteins in the cell membrane
- Integral proteins implanted within the bilayer
and can extend partway or all the way across the
membrane - Peripheral proteins such as receptor proteins,
which are not implanted in the bilayer and are
often attached to integral proteins of the
membrane
20Question 16
- Difference between
- Diffusion movement of molecules down their
concentration gradient with the use of energy
(area of higher concentration to lower
concentration) - Osmosis movement of water down its concentration
gradient (passive diffusion). Going from a higher
water concentration to area of lower water
concentration - Active Transport is the movement of a particle
across a selectively permeable membrane against
the concentration gradient (Going from low to
high concentration)
21Question 17
- Hyperosmotic (Hypertonic) moving of water from a
high solute in the environment to area of low
solute concentration to environment. The water
will move out of the cell
60 water 40 solute
40 water 60 solute
22Continue 17
- Hypoosmotic (hypotonic) Is when the solute
concentration is more in the cell than outside
the cell. The water will move in of the cell
40 Water 60 Solute
60 water 40 solute
23Continue 17
- Isosmotic (Isotonic) The solute and water is on
the same on both sides
50 solute 50 water
50 solute 50 water
24Question 18
- Phases of Mitosis
- Prophase Nuclear envelope disappears, chromatids
appear, centrioles moves to poles - Metaphase chromosomes move toward the center
Spindle are attached to the centromere - Anaphase Chromatids separate and move toward the
poles - Telophase Chromatids move toward each poles,
nuclear envelope reappears, cytokinesis begins
25Question 19
- Mitosis is the dividing of body cells
- Daughter cells will have the exact number
chromosomes as the parent cells - Meiosis is the dividing of sex cells
- Daughter cells will have half the number of
chromosomes as the parent cells
26Question 20
- Cell cycle includes
- Interphase the stage that prepares the cell for
the cell division - Mitosis is the division of the nucleus
- Cytokinesis division of the cytoplasm
27Control Mechanismp. 89 and 90 in paperback
- This is the way in which the cell has a type of
check and balance system that ensures the cell is
correct - Checkpoints
- Density-dependent inhibition
- Growth Factors
- Cyclin and Protein kinases
- You may want to go back and look over this
information
28Question 21
Mitosis Meiosis
Number of cells 2 diploid cells 4 haploid cells
Crossing over No Yes-Prophase I
Number of phases 1 (IPMATC) 2 (IPMATC PMATC) No Interphase in the second phase
Types of cells Body (Somatic) Cells Sex (Gamete) Cells
Number of chromosomes Same number of chromosomes as the parent cell Diploid Different number of chromosomes as the parent cell Haploid
Genetics Genetically Identical to the parent cell Genetically different to the parent cell
29Question 22
- The difference between meiosis I and meiosis II
is that the cell does not go through interphase
(Chromsome replication) during meiosis II. This
will allow the cells to have half the number of
chromsomes (haploid).
30Question 23
- Crossing over is when the homologous chromosomes
match up during prophase I of meiosis,
complementary pieces from the two homologous
chromosomes wrap around each other and are
exchanged between the chromosomes.
31Question 24
- Three parts to a nucleotide are5 carbon sugar,
phosphate, and nitrogen base - Serves as a puzzle piece to the nucleic acid
strand (RNA or DNA) - Adenine and guanine are purines
- Cytosine and Thymine are pyrimidine
- Base pairing states that Adenine will pair up
with thymine and Cytosine will pair up with
Guanine (AppleTart and GoCart)
32Question 25
- DNA replication occurs during the S-phase
(interphase), semiconservative (which the one
strands serves a template) - Built in the 5 to 3 direction
- DNA helicase will unzip the strand by breaking
the hydrogen bonds producing a replication fork - Specific regions along DNA strand serve as primer
sites that signal where replication should
originate - DNA polymerase enzyme superstar binds to the
primer site and adds nucleotides to the growing
DNA chain (will only add to the 3 end)
33Continue 25 (REPLICATION)
- The DNA polymerase only being used on the 3
creates a problem which only allows the one
strand to add nucleotides this is known as the
leading strand. - The other strand is known as the lagging strand
- The lagging strand consist of tiny pieces called
Okazaki fragments, which are later connected by
an enzyme called DNA ligase to produce the
completed double stranded DNA molecule - RNA primer allows for the RNA strand to bind to
the DNA strand (this occurs during replication)
34Question 26
- DNA can only stay in the nucleus so it must send
its instructions out to the cell. This is done by
the second nucleic acid (RNA). - Because DNA and RNA have very similar language it
allows it to be accomplished.
35Continue Question 26
- Transcription is the process of taking DNA to a
RNA strand (Occurs in the nucleus) - This is done by three steps
- Initiation When RNA polymerase attaches to the
promoter region of a DNA strand - Elongation a promoter region recognition site
that shows the polymerase where transcription
will begin. Once RNA polymerase works by adding
the appropriate RNA nucleotide to the 3 of the
growing strand - Termination tells the polymerase should
conclude
36Continue Question 26
- Translation process by which the mRNA specified
sequence of amino acids is lined up on a ribosome
for protein synthesis (mRNA ? DNA) - Each amino acid carries a specific
nucleotides/codes (codon) - Start Codon AUG
- Stop Codon UAA, UAG, UGA
- Anticodon is the complementary to the codon
(tRNA) that has been incorporated into the
growing protein
37Question 27
- Define the following
- Promoter a base sequence that signals the start
site of genes transcription this is where RNA
polymerase binds to the begin the process - Operator a short sequence near the promoter
that assists in transcription by interacting with
regulatory proteins - Operon promoter/operator pair that services
multiple genes - Well known example is the lac operon
- Repressor protein that prevents the binding of
RNA polymerase to the promoter site - Enhancer DNA region also known as regulator
that is located thousands of bases away frm the
promoter - Inducer a molecule that binds to and inactivates
a repressor
38Continue Question 27
- Structural Gene one that specifies the amino
acid sequence of a polypeptide chain
39Question 28
- Energy is
- The ability to do work
40Question 29
- Entropy is the measure of amount of energy that
is not available for work
41Question 30
- ATP power cellular work the energy currency of
cells (adenosine triphosphate) Functions1.
CHEMICAL WORK - Supplies energy needed to make
macromolecules that make up the cell (and
organism)2. TRANSPORT WORK - Supplies energy
needed to pump substances across the cell
membrane3. MECHANICAL WORK - supplies energy
needed to make muscles contract and other
cellular parts to move (flagella)
42Question 31
- Glycolysis
- a) a ten-step process that occurs in the
cytoplasmb) converts each molecule of glucose to
two molecules of pyruvic acid (a 3-carbon
molecule)c) an anaerobic process - proceeds
whether or not O2 is present O2 is not
requiredd) net yield of 2 ATP per glucose
moleculee) net yield of 2 NADH per glucose (NADH
is nicotine adenine dinucleotide, a co-enzyme
that serves as a carrier for H ions liberated as
glucose is oxidized.)
43Continue31
- Kreb Cycle occurs in the mitochondria
- a) occurs in the inner mitochondrial matrixb)
the acetyl group detaches from the co-enzyme A
and enters the reaction cyclec) an aerobic
process will proceed only in the presence of
O2d) net yield of 2 ATP per glucose molecule
(per 2 acetyl CoA)e) net yield of 6 NADH and 2
FADH2 (FAD serves the same purpose as NAD)f) in
this stage of cellular respiration, the oxidation
of glucose to CO2 is completed - GO BACK AND LOOK AT YOUR CYCLE
44Continue Question 31
- Electron Transport System occurs in the
mitochondria - a) consists of a series of enzymes on the inner
mitochondrial membraneb) electrons are released
from NADH and from FADH2 and as they are passed
along the series of enzymes, they give up energy
which is used to fuel a process called
chemiosmosis by which H ions are actively
transported across the inner mitochondrial
membrane into the outer mitochondrial
compartment. The H ions then flow back through
special pores in the membrane, a process that is
thought to drive the process of ATP synthesis.c)
net yield of 34 ATP per glucose moleculed) 6 H2O
are formed when the electrons unite with O2 at
the end of electron transport chain. Note
This is the function of oxygen in living
organisms!
45Question 32
- Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm
- Kreb Cycle occurs in the mitochondria
- Electron Transport Chain occurs in the
mitochondria
46Question 33
- Chemosismosis electrons are released from NADH
and from FADH2 and as they are passed along the
series of enzymes, they give up energy which is
used to fuel a process called chemiosmosis by
which H ions are actively transported across the
inner mitochondrial membrane into the outer
mitochondrial compartment.
47Question 34
- Photophosphorylation ATP a second product made
during the light reaction
48Question 35
- Fermentation an anaerobic respiration in which
glucose is broken down to pyruvate during
glycolysis. There is only a net gain of 2 ATP.
There will be no Kreb Cycle or Electron Transport
Chain - Two types of Fermentation
- Lactic Acid Fermentation The production of
lactic acid without oxygen - Examples Milk products and muscles being oxygen
deficient - Alcohol Fermentation The production of ethyl
alcohol and carbon dioxide - Examples Yeast (Bread and Alcoholic Beverages)
49Questions 36
- Two parts to photosynthesis are
- Light (light dependent) reaction Occurs in the
thylakoid membrane(contains chlorophyll) - Inputs to the light reactions are water and light
- Products ATP, NADPH, and O2
- Oxygen produced in the light reactions comes from
H2O and not CO2 - Light Independent Reaction (dark reaction)
Occurs in the stroma - Inputs into the Calvin cycle are NADPH, ATP, and
CO2 - More ATP is used than NADPH creating a need for
cylic photophosphorylation to create enough ATP
for reaction - The carbon of the sugar produced in
photosynthesis comes from the CO2 of the Calvin
Cycle
50Question 37
- Transpiration is the process of water evaporating
out of the leaves. When the water goes out of the
leaves the water the other parts of plants
replace the water through the process known as
the Cohesion Tension Theory
51Question 38
- Most photosynthesis takes place in the mesophyll
portion of the leaf
Mesophyll
52Question 39
- Aneuploidy The fusing of an abnormal gamete with
a normal one can lead to the production of
offspring with an abnormal number of chromosomes - Polyploidy a condition in which an individual
has more than the normal number of sets of
chromosomes - Structural Alternations of chromosomes are
mutations. Chromosomal mutation which include
inversion, deletion, duplications, translocation
53Continue Question 39
- What is the difference between linked and
unlinked genes? - Linked Genes group of genes on the same
chromosome - If genes are close enough then there is a higher
probability of crossing over - Unlinked Genes Genes that are not on the same
chromosome - Only together if the Law of Independent
Assortment (Mendels Law)
54Question 40
- Restriction Enzyme are enzymes that cut DNA at
specific nucleotide sequence. - Gel Electrophoresis is a technique used to
separate and examine DNA fragments. This is when
restriction enzymes are used and then separated
by electrophoresis. The pieces of DNA are
separated on the basis of size with the help of
an electric charge. This technique can be used to
sequence DNA and determine the order in which the
nucleotide appear.
55Continue Question 40
- Gel Electrophoresis can be used in forensics.
This technique require the use of Restriction
fragment length polymorphism (RFLP). DNA is
specific of each individual and when it is mixed
with restriction enzyme, different combination of
RFLPs will be obtained from person to person
56Continue Question 40
- Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) can be used
during Gel Electrophoresis but can also be used
to sequence DNA - PCR will amplify the gene to be studied
- PCR will allow scientist to study genetic
disorders and amplify trace amounts of DNA found
at crime scences.
57Question 41
- Applications of DNA technology
- Recombinant DNA contains two or more different
sources - Cloning slow process by which a desired sequence
of DNA is copied numerous times - Gel Electrophoresis technique used to separate
DNA according to size (smallfaster). DNA moves
from - to - Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) produces large
quantities of sequence in short amount of time
58Question 42
- Mutations Genetic Mistakes
- Three types of muations are
- Gene Mutation Substitutes one bases for another
- This can include insertion, deletion, and point
mutations - Chromosomal Mutation The entire chromosome is
messed up - This includes inversion, duplication,
translocation, deletion - Frameshift Mutation either a base is added or
deleted which causes a change in the reading
frame
59Question 43
- Three causes of mutation
- Radiation X-rays and gamma waves
- Viruses
- Random Age is one example if a woman pregnant
over 40 has a greater chance for Down Syndrome
60Question 44
- Difference between Viruses are protein coat,
shape (popcorn ball compare to Apollo lunar
lander), and Nucleic acid
61Question 45
- Viral Reproduction
- Lytic cycle reproduction occurs, cells burst
- Lysogenic cycle reproduction does not
immediately occur (dormancy)
62Question 46
- Hardy-Weinberg Conditions
- No mutations
- No gene flow (immigration or emigration)
- No genetic drift (populations must be kept large)
- No natural selection (All organisms have the
ability to survive and reproduce) - Random Mating
63Question 47
- Hardy Weinberg equation
- p2 2 pq q2 1
-
- p2 Homozygous Dominant
- 2pq Heterozygous Dominant
- q2 Homozygous Recessive
- p. 144-145 you may need to go back how to
answer Hardy-Weinberg equation
64Question 48
- Prezygotic barriers
- Behavioral Isolation Different courtship rituals
- Temporal Isolation Reproduces at different times
- Mechanical Isolation reproductive structures
that does not allow reproduction - Gametic Mortality Inability between sperm and
egg - Ecological Isolation potential mates that can
reproduce but are not in the same area - Postzygotic barriers feterilization takes place
forming a hybrid
65Question 49
- Allopatric Speciation inbreeding ceases because
some sort of barrier separates a single
population into two (an area with no food, a
mountain, etc.). The populations evolve
independently, and if they change enough, then
even if the barrier is removed, they can not
interbreed
66Continue Question 49
- Sympatric speciation Interbreeding ceases even
though no physical barrier prevents it. - Two several forms
- Polyploidy a conditions in which an individual
has more than the normal number of sets of
chromosomes - Balanced polymorphism this condition can lead to
speciation if two variants diverge enough to no
longer be able to interbreed
67Question 50
- Microevolution Evolution on a species level
- Macroevolution Evolution on a large scale
68Question 51
- Genetic Drift
- 1. Genetic drift refers to changes in allele
frequencies of a gene pool due to chance, more
often in small populations2. Genetic drift
occurs when founders start a new population, or
after a genetic bottleneck with interbreeding.
69Question 52
- Gene Flow
- 1. Gene flow (gene migration) is the movement of
alleles among populations by migration of
breeding individuals.2. Gene flow can increase
variation within a population by introducing
novel alleles 3. Continued gene flow decreases
diversity among populations, causing gene pools
to become similar.4. Gene flow among populations
can prevent speciation from occurring.
70Question 53
- Fitness Describe the ability of an organism to
survive and reproduce (produce fertile offspring)
71Questions 54
- Natural Selection The ability of the organisms
to survive and reproduce - Three conditions of natural selection
- Variation a population must exhibit phenotypic
variance difference between individuals - Heritability if a trait cannot be inherited, it
cannot be selected for or against - Differential reproductive success measure how
many offspring you produce that survive relative
to how many the other individuals in your
population produce
72Question 55
- Protist is a eukaryotic
- Autotrophic or heterotrophic
- Multicellular or unicellular
- Mostly asexual
- Mostly aquatic
- Motile or nonmotile
Ex Euglena, Amoeba, Paramecium, Algae, Slime
Molds
73Question 56
- The domain is larger than the kingdom on the
hierarchical level of classification. - Domain is based on molecular classification
- Three domain system
- Archae no nucleus (prokaryote), cell wall
without peptioglycan, lives in extreme
environment - Bacteria- No nucleus (prokaryote), cell wall with
peptioglycan, all other bacteria - Eukarya- Nucleus (eukaryote), some with cell
wall, motile/nonmotile
74Question 57
- Six Kingdoms
- Protista Heterotrophic or Autotrophic
- Unicellular or Multicellular
- Mostly aquatic
- Mostly asexual
- Motile or Nonmotile
- The endosymbiosis theory explains how organisms
developed organelles
75ContinueQuestion 57
- Fungi
- Heterotrophic
- Unicellular or Multicellular
- Mostly terrestrial
- Asexual or sexual
- Nonmotile
- Important decomposers in the environment
- Ex Mushrooms, molds, yeasts
76ContinueQuestion 57
- Plantae
- Multicellular
- Autotrophic
- Mostly terrestrial
- Asexual or Sexual
- Nonmotile
77ContinueQuestion 57
- Animal
- Multicellular
- Heterotrophic
- Terrestrial and Aquatic
- Sexual (a few are asexual)
- Motile (a few are nonmotile--sessile)
78Continue Question 57
- Archaebacteria
- Prokaryotic
- Lives in Extreme Environments
- Cell wall made up of without
- peptioglycan
- Eubacteria
- Prokarytic
- Cell wall made up of peptioglycan
- Normal Bacteria
79Question 58
- Photoautotroph An organism capable of
synthesizing its own food from inorganic
substances using light as an energy source. - Chemoautotroph An organism (typically a
bacterium or a protozoan ) that obtains energy
through chemical process, which is by the
oxidation of electron donating molecules from the
environment, rather than by photosynthesis.
80ContinueQuestion 58
- Chemoheterotroph An organism deriving energy by
ingesting intermediates or building blocks that
it is incapable of creating on its own. - Photoheterotroph An organism that depends on
light for most of its energy and principally on
organic compounds for its carbon.
81Question 59
- Eumetazoa tissues and organs present nervous
system with neurons - Acoelomate no body cavity body double-walled
sac surrounding digestive cavity single opening
to outside characteristic of flatworms - Pseudocoelomateno body cavity body
double-walled sac surrounding digestive cavity
single opening to outside characteristic of
flatworms
82ContinueQuestion 59
- Coelomates have body cavity
- Protostomes Mouth develops first
- Deuterostomes Anus develops first
83Protostome mouth develops firstDeuterostome
anus develops first
Ectoderm outside layer, skinMesoderm middle
layer, musclesEndoderm inside layer, gut
Coelom body cavityPseudocoelom - partial body
cavity
Radial Symmetry - Body parts arranged in a
wheel Bilateral Symmetry right and left sides
84Question 60
- Three parts to a plant include
- Roots
- Shoots
- Leaves
85Question 61
- Three basic tissue include
- Ground tissue that makes up most of the body of
the plant, is found between the dermal and
vascular tissue. It can be divided into three
cell types collenchyma, parenchyma, an
dsclerenchyma - Vascular tissue
- Xylem support structure that strengthens the
plant and functions as a passageway for the
transport water and minerals from the soil - Phloem Function as the highway for plants in the
assisting of sugars from one place to another.
86Continue Question 61
- Dermal Tissue provides the protective outer
covering for plants. - Skin of the plant is its epidermis
- Within the epidermis is guard cells which control
the opening and closing of gaps called stomata
which is vital to photosynthesis.
87Question 62
- Alternation of generation Plant life cycle, so
named because during the cycle, plants sometimes
exist as a diploid organism and at other times as
a haploid organisms.
88Question 63
- Primary Growth Occurs in the apical meristem
which is the region that lengthens the plants. - Secondary Growth Occurs in the lateral meristem
which causes the plant to increase in width
89Question 64
- Transpiration Is the process of moving water
through the plant. The water is removed from the
plant through evaporation out of the leaves.
Transpiration creates a negative pressure in the
leaves and xylem tissue due to the evaporative
loss of water. Water molecules display molecular
attraction (cohesion) and other water molecules,
in effect creating a single united water molecule
that runs the length of the plant.
90Continue.Question 64
- Translocation the transport of carbohydrates
through the phloem. The movement of the sugar
into the phloem creates a driving force because
it establishes a concentration gradient. The
gradient leads to the passive diffusion of water
into the phloem, causing an increase in the
pressure of these cells.
91Question 65
- Xylem support structure that strengthens the
plant and functions as a passageway for the
transport water and minerals from the soil - Phloem Function as the highway for plants in the
assisting of sugars from one place to another.
92Question 66
- Abscisic acid babysitter hormone It makes sure
that seeds do not germinate too early, inhibits
cell growth, and stimulates the closing of the
stomata to make sure the plant maintains enough
water. - Auxin (Important AP Biology exam hormone
selection) elongation of stems, and plants a
role in phototropism and gravitropism
93Continue Question 66
- Cytokinins promotes cell division and leaf
enlargement. Supermarkets use this to keep
veggies of fresh. Fountain of youth hormone - Ethylene Initiates fruit ripening and causes
flowers and leaves to drop from trees - Gibberellins Stem elongation. Think Grow when
comes to this hormone. It is also thought to
induce the growth of dormant seeds, buds, and
flowers
94Question 67
- Phototropism plants growth response to light.
Auxin is the hormone in charge of stem elongation
here. The stem elongation occurs at the apical
meristem
95Question 68
- Photoperiodism the response by a plant to change
in the length of the day.
96Question 69
- Short-day plants Exposure to a night longer than
a certain number of hours. - Flowering end of the summer to end of the winter
- Example Poinsettas
- Long-day plants exposure to a night shorter than
a certain number of hours - Flowering Late spring to early summer
- Example Spinach
97Question 70
- Four major tissue in animals include
- Epithelial is made of closely-packed cells
arranged in flat sheets. Epithelia form the
surface of the skin, line the various cavities
and tubes of the body, and cover the internal
organs.
98ContinueQuestion 70
- Muscle Three kinds of muscle are found in
vertebrates - Skeletal muscle is made of long fibers whose
contraction provides the force of locomotion and
other voluntary body movements. - Smooth muscle lines the walls of the hollow
structures of the body, such as the intestine,
urinary bladder, uterus, and blood vessels. Its
contraction, which is involuntary, reduces the
size of these hollow organs. - The heart is made of cardiac muscle.
99ContinueQuestion 70
- Connective Tissue
- The cells of connective tissue are embedded in a
great amount of extracellular material. This
matrix is secreted by the cells. It consists of
protein fibers embedded in an amorphous mixture
of protein-polysaccharide ("proteoglycan")
molecules. - This includes Cartilage, bone, ligaments,
tendons, adipose tissue
100Continue Question 70
- Nerve Nerve tissue is composed of nerve cells
called neurons and glial cells. - Neurons are specialized for the conduction of
nerve impulses. A typical neuron consists of a
cell body which contains the nucleus a number of
short fibers dendrites extending from the
cell body a single long fiber, the axon.
101Question 71
- Ectoderm Tissue that covers the body coverings.
- Forms the central nervous system, the lens of the
eye, cranial and sensory, the ganglia and nerves,
pigment cells, head connective tissues, the
epidermis, hair, and mammary glands
102ContinueQuestion 71
- Mesodermlayer forms in the embryos of
triploblastic animals. During gastrulation, some
of the cells migrating inward contribute to the
mesoderm, an additional layer between the
endoderm and the ectoderm. - The formation of a mesoderm led to the
development of a coelom. Organs formed inside a
coelom can freely move, grow, and develop
independently of the body wall while fluid
cushions and protects them from shocks - Forms the skeletal muscle, the skeleton, the
dermis of skin, connective tissue, the urogenital
system, the heart, blood (lymph cells), and the
spleen
103ContinueQuestion 71
- Endoderm is one of the germ layers formed during
animal embryogenesis. Cells migrating inward
along the archenteron form the inner layer of the
gastrula - Forms into the stomach, the colon, the liver, the
pancreas, the urinary bladder, the lining of the
urethra, the epithelial parts of trachea, the
lungs, the pharynx, the thyroid, the parathyroid,
and the intestines.
104Question 72
- Function of the circulatory system includes
- Left side of heart ? aorta ? via arteries to
organs, muscles ? into venous system of the body
(vena cava) ? right side of the heart ? lungs
(pick up oxygen) ? left side of heart
105Question 73
- Three components of the circulatory system
includes - Arteries Oxygenated blood to the body
- Veins Deoxygenated blood bringing blood back to
the heart - Capillaries Exchanging gases between arteries
and veins
106Question 74
- Blood buffer system regulate blood pH through the
liquid portion of the blood called plasma. - The kidneys filter the blood that regulates the
pH of the blood.
107Question 75
- Systemic circulation Systemic circulation
supplies nourishment to all of the tissue located
throughout your body, with the exception of the
heart and lungs because they have their own
systems. Systemic circulation is a major part of
the overall circulatory system. - Pulmonary circulation Pulmonary circulation is
the movement of blood from the heart, to the
lungs, and back to the heart again. This is just
one phase of the overall circulatory system.
108Question 76
- Two main types found in the immune system in
animals - Nonspecific immunity nonspecific prevention of
the entrance of invaders into the body. - Example Saliva contains an enzyme called
lysozyme that can kill germs before they have a
chance to take hole - Skin covering the entire the body
- Specific immunity multilayered defense
mechanism 1- first line of defensephagocytes,
macrophage, neutrophils, complement 2- second
line of defense B cells (plasma/memory), T cells
(helper/cytoxic)
109Question 77
- Inflammatory response A fundamental type of
response by the body to disease and injury, a
response characterized by the classical signs of
pain, heat (localized warmth), redness, and
swelling.
110Question 78
- Cell-mediated immunity involves direct cellular
response to invasion as opposed to antibody-based
defense - Managed by T- cells
- Humoral immunity systemdeals with infectious
agents in the blood and body tissues - Managed by B-cells with the help from T-cells
111Question 79
- Primary Immune response antigen invader ? B cell
meets antigen? B cell differentiates into plasma
cells and memory cells ? plasma cells produce
antiboides ?antibodies eliminate antigen (humoral
immunity) - Secondary immune response antigen invader ?
memory cells recognize antigen and pump out
antibodies much quicker than primary response ?
antibodies eliminate antigen
112Question 80
- Kidney The kidneys are bean-shaped organs, each
about the size of a fist. They are located near
the middle of the back, just below the rib cage,
one on each side of the spine. The kidneys are
sophisticated reprocessing machines. Every day, a
persons kidneys process about 200 quarts of
blood to sift out about 2 quarts of waste
products and extra water. The wastes and extra
water become urine, which flows to the bladder
through tubes called ureters. The bladder stores
urine until releasing it through urination
113Question 81
- Ectotherm Cold blooded organisms
- Snake
- Endotherm Warm blooded organisms
- Human
114Question 82
- Central Nervous System makes up the brain and
spinal column - Controls skeletal muscles and voluntary movement
- Peripheral Nervous System Can be broken down
into sensory and motor division - The sensory division carries information to the
CNS while the motor division carries information
away from the CNS - Autonomic Nervous System controls involuntary
activities of the body smooth muscles, cardiac
muscles, and glands. - Can be divided down further to sympathetic and
parasympathetic
115Question 83
- Sympathetic Nervous System It is the part of
the Fright and FlightResponse. It uses energy -
your blood pressure increases, your heart beats
faster, and digestion slows down - Parasympathetic Nervous System Read and Digest
response. It works to save you energy by lowering
blood pressure, heart beat slows, and digestion
starts.
116Question 84
- Glial CellsA supportive cell in the central
nervous system -- the brain and spinal cord.
Glial cells do not conduct electrical impulses
(as opposed to neurons, which do). The glial
cells surround neurons and provide support for
them and insulation between them. Glial cells are
capable of extensive signaling in response to a
diversity of stimuli.
117Question 85
- There are three parts that make up a neuron
- Cell Body Main body of the neuron
- Dendrite is one of many short, branched
processes of a neuron that help bring the nerve
impulses toward the cell body - Axons are longer extensions that leave from a
neuron and carry the impulse away from the cell
body toward target cells.
118Question 86
- Mechanoreceptors enable us to detect touch
monitor the position of our muscles, bones, and
joints and detect sounds and the motion of the
body - Chemoreceptors a sensory nerve cell or sense
organ, as of smell or taste, that responds to
chemical stimuli - Photoreceptors A nerve ending, cell, or group of
cells specialized to sense or receive light.
119Question 87
- A skeletal muscle fiber shows striations.
- These straitions result from a specific
arrangements of proteins inside the myofibre. The
two principal type of proteins are myosin
(forming the thick filament) and actin (forming
thin filaments) - The sarcomere is the distance between two Z lines
which are formed by the joining points of the
thin filaments. The lighter I band represents
areas where the thin filaments are present while
the H band is where both actin and myosin run
parallel to each other.
120ContinueQuestion 87
121Question 88
- Sliding filament model contraction occurs in the
sarcomere of striated muscle, by the sliding of
the thick filaments relative to the thin
filaments.
122Question 89
- Four essential nutrients
- Carbs- ingested in the form of polysaccharides,
used mainly as fuel - Lipids- are used as fuel, as components of cell
membranes, and to synthesize steroid hormones and
other lipid substances, ingested as triglycerides - Proteins- serve as enzymes and are essential
structural components of cells - Vitamins- are organic compounds required in small
amounts for many biochemical processes, some
serve as components of coenzymes - Minerals- are inorganic nutrients ingested as
salts dissolved in food and water
123Question 90
Blood traveling through the heart 1- Blood
arrives through vena cava into right atrium 2-
Right atrium through tricupsid valve 3- Right
ventricles (least oxygenated blood) 4- To lungs
through pulmonary artery by route of pulmonary
valve 5- Blood returns to heart through pulmonary
vein 6- Enters left atrium (most oxygenated
blood) 7- Enters the left ventricle through the
mitral valve 8- Goes to the aorta by route of
aortic valve 9- To the rest of the body
124Question 91
Blue section of the heart is the deoxygenated
blood Red section is the oxygenated blood
125Question 92
- Plasma The liquid portion of the blood, which
contains minerals, hormones, antibodies, and
nutritional materials. - Plasma purpose is allows blood to flow so
efficiently
126Question 93
- Erythrocytes Red blood cells that contains the
protein hemoglobin - Leukocytes White blood cells that function for
the defense of the organisms - Platelets or thrombocytes these blood cells
are responsible for stopping blood around the
wound.
127Question 94
- Each heartbeat has two basic parts diastole or
relaxation, and atrial and ventricular systole
(SIS-toe-lee), or contraction. - During diastole, the atria and ventricles of your
heart relax and begin to fill with blood. At the
end of diastole, your heart's atria contract
(atrial systole) and pump blood into the
ventricles. The atria then begin to relax. Next,
your heart's ventricles contract (ventricular
systole) and pump blood out of your heart.
128Question 95
- Humoral immunity involves the T lymphocytes cells
and B lymphocytes - The plasma cells are the factories that produce
antibodies that function in the elimination of
any cell containing on its surface the antigen
that it has been summoned to killed. These
antibodies, when released, bind to the antigens,
immobilzing them and marking them for the
marophages to engulf and eliminate
129Question 96
- Cell-mediated immunity involves direct cellular
response to invasion as opposed to anitbody-based
defense. - Cytotoxic T Cells into play
130Question 97
- Aldosterone regulates sodium concentration of
the body. - It helps in maintaining the blood pressure and
liquids/electrolytes in the blood. - The kidney hormone kenin normally stimulates the
adrenal glands released aldosterone
131Question 98
- Renin-angiotensin system is the hormone that
regulates blood pressure
132Question 99
- Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) stimulates
reabsorption of water by the collecting ducts of
the nephron. - ADH is a hormone stored in the posterior
pituitary gland in the brain. It regulates water
in the body. ADH acts on the kidneys to increase
total body water. This increases blood volume and
blood pressure. - These cells sense the concentration of particles
in the blood. When the concentration is high, the
pituitary releases more ADH. This causes more
water to be retained to dilute the body fluids.
When the concentration is low, the pituitary
releases less ADH.
133Question 100
- Steroid hormones are lipid-soluble molecules
that pass through the cell membrane and combine
with cytoplasmic proteins. - Function Reproduction, glucose metabolism, and
the response to stress and salt balance
134Question 101
- Peptide (Protein) Hormone water-soluble hormones
comprised of a few amino acids that introduce a
series of chemical reactions to change the cell's
metabolism. Examples include hormones of the
pituitary gland and parathyroid glands. - The proteins are too large to move into cells and
thus bind to receptors on the surface of cells
135Question 102
- Secondary Messengers In response to the binding
of a protein hormone, a change in the receptor
that leads to the activation of molecules inside
the cell, which serve as intermedairies,
activating other proteins and enzymes that carry
out the mission - Two examples
- cAMP
- G proteins
- Calicum ions
136Question 103
- Insulin produced in the pancreas
- Three functions of insulin include
- To release insulin in the pancreas to be stored
in the glycogen - Used for energy
- Sometimes between meals, your glucose level drops
below the desired glucose level this will cause
your glycogen into action causing the pancreas
into action.
137Section 104
- Glucagon Stimulates conversion of glycogen into
glucose. - Stored in the liver
- Raises the blood sugar
- Stores blood sugar (in the liver) and will
stimulate the pancreas to release insulin from
the pancreas when blood sugar (glucose) drops.
138Question 105
- Introduction development begins as soon as the
egg is fertilized to produce a diploid zygote
(2n). - Cleavage cytoplasm is distributed unevenly to
the daughter cells but genetic information is
distributed unevenly. - These cleavage division take a while in humans.
The first three division takes 3 days to
complete. After the fourth division, the one cell
has become 16 cells and is now called a morula.
139ContinueQuestion 105
- As it undergoes it next round of cell division,
fluid fills the center of the morula to create
the hollow-looking structure known as the
blastula. - Gastrulation (also called morphogenesis)- cells
separate into three primary layers called germ
layers, which eventually give rise to the
different tissues of an adult - Holoblastic Total or entire cleavage
- Meroblastic Partial Cleavage
140Continue Question 105
- Archenteron Hollow space
- This results in the formation of three dermal
layers - The ectoderm (forms outer covering nervous
tissue) - The endoderm (gut outpocketings like liver
lungs) - The mesoderm (muscles other organs, forms later
in the blastocoel of the gastrula)
141(No Transcript)
142Question 106
- Cytoplasmic Determinants (distribution)
different amounts of cytoplasmic signal different
structures - Gene Expression (homeotic genes) regulate or
direct the body plan of organisms - Morphogenesis (same as gastrulation) cells
separate into three primary layers called germ
layers - Pattern Formation Formation of different germ
layers
143Continue..Question 106
- Positional Information During gastrulation will
allow the cell to form different cells (endoderm,
mesoderm, and ectoderm) - Morphogens Substance that governs tissue
development.
144Question 107
- Autonomic Nervous System(ANS) Controls
involuntary activities of body. - Regulates Muscles
- in the skin (around hair follicles smooth
muscle) - around blood vessels (smooth muscle)
- in the eye (the iris smooth muscle)
- in the stomach, intestines and bladder (smooth
muscle) - of the heart (cardiac muscle)
145Continue Question 107
- Somatic Nervous System Is responsible for
voluntary body movements - Skeletal Muscles
- Touch
- Hearing
- Sight
146Question 108
- Parts of the brain
- Medulla Control center for involuntary
activities such as breathing - Pons Arousal, controlling autonomic function,
relaying sensory information between cerebrum and
cerebellum, sleep - Cerebellum is in charge of coordination and
balance - Reticular formation located inside the brain
stem responsible for Arousal, Attention,
Cardiac Reflexes, Motor Functions, Regulates
Awareness, Relays Nerve Signals to the Cerebral
Cortex, Sleep
147ContinueQuestion 108
- Thalamus Motor Control, Receives Auditory,
Somatosensory and Visual Sensory Signals, Relays
Sensory Signals to the Cerebral Cortex Controls
Sleep and Awake States - Hypothalamus is the thermostat and hunger-meter
of the body, regulating temperature, hunger and
thirst - Cerebral cortex many "higher-order" functions
likelanguage and information processing. Gray
matter
148Question 109
- Demography is the scientific study of
characteristics and dynamics pertaining to the
populations. The characteristics encompassed by
this study include size, growth rate, density,
vital statistics, and distribution of a specified
population
149Question 110
- Density dependent factors is dependent on the
size of the population - Three density dependent factors
- Disease
- Competition
- Parasites
150Question 111
- Density independent factors is a limiting factor
that does not depend on population size. - Natural disaster
- Seasonal changes
- Climate/Weather
151Question 112
- Exponential growth the population grows at a
rate that creates a J-shaped curve. The
population grows as if there are no limitation as
to how large it can get (biotic potential) - Logistic growth the population grows at a rate
that creates an S-shaped curve similar to the
initial portion. Limiting factors are the
culprits responsible for the S shaped of the
curve, putting a cap on the size to which the
population can grow.
152Question 113
- K-selected populations Populations of roughly
constant size whose members have low reproductive
rates. The offspring produced by these K-selected
organisms require extensive postnatal care until
they have sufficiently matured. Humans are an
example - R-selected Populations that experience rapid
growth of the J-curve variety. The offspring
produced by R-selected organisms are numerous,
mature quite rapidly, and require very little
postnatal care. Also known as opportunistic
population
153Question 114
- Survivorship Curves
- Type I individuals live long life until an age
is reached where the death rate in the population
increases rapidly, causing the steep downward
end. Example Human and larger mammals - Type II Individuals have a death that is
reasonably constant across the age spectrum.
Example lizards, hydra, other small mammals - Type III Individuals have steep downward curve
for those of young age, representing a death rate
that flattens out once a certain age is reached .
Example many fishes, oysters, and other marine
organisms
154Example of Survivorship Curves
155Question 115
- Defense Mechanisms
- Aposematic coloration warning coloration adopted
by animals that possess a chemical defense
mechanism - Batesian mimicry an animal that his harmless
copies the appearance of an animal that is
dangerous to trick predators. - Cryptic coloration organisms hunted adopt a
coloring scheme that allows them to blend in tto
the colors of the environment - Mullerian mimicry two species that are
aposematically colored as an indicator of their
chemical defense mechanism mimic each others
color scheme in an effort to increase the speed
with which their predators learn to avoid them