States of Consciousness

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States of Consciousness
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Sleep, Dreams, and Body Rhythms
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Consciousness

• Awareness of oneself and ones environment

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Body Rhythms
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Biological Rhythms

• Periodic physiological fluctuations
• Can affect physiological functioning
• Fall into three main categories
• Circadian Rhythms
• Ultradian Rhythms
• Infradian Rhythms

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Circadian Rhythms

• Biological rhythms that occur approximately every
  24 hours
• Example Sleep-wake cycle

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Ultradian Rhythms

• Biological rhythms that occur more than once each
  day
• Example Stages of sleep throughout the night

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Infradian Rhythms

• Biological rhythms that occur once a month or
  once a season
• Example Womens menstrual cycle

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Sleep and Sleep Deficit
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Sleep Deprivation Effects

• Decreases efficiency of immune system functioning
• Safety and accident issues
• Contributes to hypertension, impaired
  concentration, irritability, etc.

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Sleep Deprivation(National Transportation Safety
Board, 1995)
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Why We Sleep
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Hypothalamus

• Sleep control center in the brain
• Monitors changes in light or dark in the
  environment
• Changes levels of hormones in the body

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Melatonin

• A hormone that helps regulate daily biological
  rhythms
• Linked to the sleep-wake cycle
• Melatonin level increases during the night and
  decreases with exposure to morning light

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Reasons for Sleep

• Two primary reasons
• Preservation keep us protected from the dangers
  of the night
• Restoration recuperate from the wear and tear of
  the day

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Sleep Stages, REM, and DreamingThe Stages of
Sleep
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Electroencephalograph (EEG)

• A machine that amplifies and records waves of
  electrical activity that sweep across the brains
  surface
• Electrodes are placed on the persons scalp to
  measure the waves
• Used as a means to measure the stages of sleep

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EEG
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Stage 1 Sleep

• Breathing is slowed.
• Brain waves become irregular.
• It is easy to wake the person, who will insist
  they are not asleep.
• Person will report they have dreamlike
  sensations, such as falling.

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Stage 1
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Stages of Sleep
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Stage 1
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Stage 2 Sleep

• Brain wave cycle slows.
• EEG spindles (small brain wave bursts) develop.
• First time through stage 2 last about 20 minutes.

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Stage 2
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Stages 3 and 4 Sleep

• Increase in delta waves (large and slow waves per
  second)
• First time through stage 4 is about 30 minutes
  and is where one gets rejuvenated

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Stage 3
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Stage 4
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Sleep Stages, REM, and DreamingREM Sleep
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REM Sleep

• Stages 1 - 4 considered N-REM (non-REM sleep)
• Rapid eye movement (REM Sleep) as eyes move
  quickly back and forth
• Most dreaming occurs in REM sleep

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REM Sleep
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Paradoxical Sleep

• During REM sleep brain wave patterns are similar
  to when a person is awake
• Pulse and breathing quickens.
• REM sleep is sometimes called paradoxical sleep
  as ones physiology is close to that of being
  awake but the brainstem blocks all muscle movement

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Typical Nights Sleep
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Stage 4/REM Changes
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Sleep Changes through Life
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Sleep Stages, REM, and DreamingWhy Do We Dream?
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Information-Processing Theory

• Dreams serve an important memory- related
  function by sorting and sifting through the days
  experiences
• Research suggests REM sleep helps memory storage.

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Physiological Function Theory

• Neural activity during REM sleep provides
  periodic stimulation of the brain.

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Activation-Synthesis Theory

• Dreams are the minds attempt to make sense of
  random neural firings in the brain as one sleeps.

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Sleep Disorders and Sleep ProblemsInsomnia
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Insomnia

• Recurring problems falling asleep or staying
  asleep
• Sleeping pills tend to inhibit or suppress REM
  sleep worsen the problem
• Alcohol suppresses REM sleep also worsens the
  problem
• Studies show most people overestimate how long it
  took them to get to sleep

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Sleep Disorders and Sleep ProblemsSleep Apnea
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Sleep Apnea

• A sleep disorder characterized by temporary
  cessations of breathing during sleep and
  consequent momentary reawakenings.
• Tend to be loud snorers
• Continuous Positive Airway Pressure machine

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Sleep Disorders and Sleep ProblemsNarcolepsy
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Narcolepsy

• A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable
  sleep attacks
• Person goes directly into REM sleep
• Nervous system getting aroused tends to trigger
  the sleep attack

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Sleep Disorders and Sleep ProblemsOther Sleep
Problems
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Somnambulism

• Formal name for sleepwalking
• Starts in the deep stages of N-REM sleep
• Person can walk or talk but remembers nothing of
  the experience

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Night Terrors

• Sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and
  appearance of being terrified
• Happens during stage 4 sleep mostly children
• The children seldom remember the event.

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Other Sleep Disorders

• Bruxism teeth grinding
• Enuresis bed wetting
• Myoclonus sudden jerk of a body part occurring
  during stage 1 sleep
• Everyone has occasional episodes of myoclonus

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Hypnosis
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What is Hypnosis?
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Hypnosis

• A social interaction in which one person (the
  hypnotist) makes suggestions about perceptions,
  feelings, thoughts, or behaviors, and another
  person (the subject) follows those suggestions

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What is Hypnosis?Social Influence Theory
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Social Influence Theory

• Powerful social influences produce a state of
  hypnosis.
• This theory notes that a persons physiological
  state does not change under hypnosis.
• Social factors influence people to believe
  hypnosis will work.

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What is Hypnosis?Divided Consciousness Theory
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Divided Consciousness Theory

• During hypnosis our consciousness splits so that
  one aspect of consciousness is not aware of the
  role that other parts are playing.
• Promoted by Ernest Hilgard (1904-2001)

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Hypnotic Techniques
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Hypnotic Induction

• The process by which a hypnotist creates a state
  of hypnosis in a subject
• Usually done by voicing a series of suggestions
• Voice is usually calm and of a rhythmic tone

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Hypnotizability

• Differences in the ability of people to become
  hypnotized
• Varies from person to person
• Varies from situation to situation

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Hypnotizability
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Hypnotic TechniquesHypnotic Suggestions
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Limits to Hypnotic Suggestions

• Suggestions usually involve sensations, thoughts,
  emotions, and a wide variety of behaviors.
• Hypnosis does not cause behaviors.
• Hypnosis can lead people to certain behaviors but
  so can ordinary suggestions.

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Hypnotic TechniquesPosthypnotic Suggestions
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Posthypnotic Suggestions

• A suggestion, made during a hypnosis session,
  that the subject will carry out when no longer
  hypnotized
• Technique can be used to encourage helpful
  behavior changes, such as stopping smoking or
  losing weight.

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Hypnotic Amnesia

• Inability to remember what happened during
  hypnosis because the hypnotist suggests that the
  subject will have no memory of that period of
  time

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Applications of HypnosisHypnosis and Memory
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Hypnosis and Memory

• There are isolated cases of hypnosis helping
  recall.
• Cannot be sure if the memory came back due to
  hypnosis
• Cannot be sure if the memory is accurate or one
  that is created to please the hypnotist

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Applications of HypnosisHypnosis and Pain
Control
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Pain and Hypnosis

• Hypnosis does work as a means to control pain.
• Has a number of practical applications

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Applications of HypnosisOther Hypnotic Claims
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Placebo Effect

• Improvement due only to the power of positive
  expectations
• People think they will get better so they do

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Feats of Strength

• Many feats of strength done under hypnosis can be
  accomplished without hypnosis.

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Feats of Strength
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Age Regression

• Under hypnosis, the supposed ability to remember
  earlier periods of time in ones life
• Psychologists consider age regression
  demonstrations unreliable.

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Drugs
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Psychoactivity and Dependence
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Psychoactive Drug

• A chemical substance that alters perceptions,
  mood, or behavior
• Three common psychoactive drugs
• Caffeine
• Alcohol
• Nicotine
• Induce an altered state of consciousness

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Dependence

• A state of physiological and/or psychological
  need to take more of a substance after continued
  use.
• Withdrawal follows if the drug is discontinued

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Withdrawal

• The discomfort and distress that follow when a
  person who is dependent on a drug discontinues
  the use of the drug
• Withdrawal symptoms are usually the reverse of
  the drugs effects.

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Tolerance

• Reduced responsiveness to a drug, prompting the
  user to increase the dosage to achieve effects
  previously obtained by lower doses of the drug

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Tolerance
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Drugs and Neurotransmission
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Neurotransmission

• The process whereby neurons communicate with each
  other
• Neurotransmission, especially in the brain and
  spinal cord, helps explain the effects of
  psychoactive drugs.
• Psychoactive drugs interfere with normal
  neurotransmission.

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Neurotransmitters

• Chemical messengers that cross synaptic gaps
  between neurons
• When released by the sending neuron,
  neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and
  bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron,
  setting up the next link in the chain of
  communication.

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Synapse

• The junction between the tip of the sending
  neuron and the receptor sites on the receiving
  neuron
• Call the synaptic gap or cleft

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Neural Activity
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Neurotransmitters and the Synapse
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Reuptake

• Process where the unused neurotransmitter
  chemical is reabsorbed by the sending neuron

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Reuptake
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Psychoactive Drugs and Synapses

• Psychoactive drugs affect synapses and
  neurotransmitters in three ways
• Binding with receptors
• Blocking receptor site
• Blocking neurotransmitters reuptake

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Drug Classifications
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Five Psychoactive Drug Categories

• Five different categories we will study
• Depressants
• Opiates
• Stimulants
• Hallucinogens
• Marijuana

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Drug Classifications Depressants
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Depressants

• Drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body
  functioning
• Includes alcohol and sedatives

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Alcohol (ethyl alcohol)

• Found in beer, wine, and liquor
• The second most used psychoactive drug (caffeine
  first)
• Slows thinking, and impairs physical activity

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Blood Alcohol Content (BAC)

• A measure of how much alcohol is in a persons
  bloodstream
• BAC of .8 considered legal intoxication in most
  states

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Euphoric Affects of Alcohol

• Alcohol impairs the parts of the brain
  responsible for controlling inhibitions and
  making judgments

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Alcohol, Memory, and Sleep

• Studies have shown that alcohol impairs memory by
  suppressing the processing of events into long
  term memory.
• Alcohol impairs REM sleep, further disrupting
  memory storage.

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Sedatives

• Drugs that reduce anxiety or induce sleep
• Also called tranquilizers
• Include barbiturates and benzodiazepines

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Barbiturates

• Drugs that depress the activity of the central
  nervous system and thereby reduce anxiety
• Can be lethal in overdose and interact with other
  drugs, especially alcohol
• Impair both memory and judgment
• Can create tolerance and dependence

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Benzodiazepines

• Drugs that depress that activity of the central
  nervous system without most of the side effects
  associated with barbiturates
• Include Valium and Xanax
• Can create dependency

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Drug Classifications Opiates
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Opiates

• Drugs that depress neural activity, temporarily
  lesson pain and anxiety
• Include opium, morphine, and heroin

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Morphine

• Strong sedative and pain-relieving drug derived
  from opium
• Works by preventing pain neurons from firing or
  releasing pain-signaling neurotransmitters into
  the synapse

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Endorphins

• Natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to
  pain control and to pleasure
• Bodys natural pain killers

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Drug Classifications Stimulants
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Stimulants

• Drugs that excite neural activity and speed up
  body functions
• Include caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, and
  cocaine

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Caffeine

• Stimulant found in coffee, chocolate, tea, and
  some soft drinks
• Provides user with a sense of increased energy,
  mental alertness, and forced wakefulness
• Blocks neurological receptor sites that , if
  activated, sedate the central nervous system

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Nicotine

• Stimulant found in tobacco
• Effects similar to those of caffeine
• Very addictive and does not stay in the body very
  long

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Cocaine

• Stimulant derived from leaves of the coca plant
• Crack cocaine crystals
• Blocks the reuptake of certain neurotransmitters
• Dependency is quick and severe places extreme
  strain on cardiovascular system

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Amphetamines

• Drugs that stimulate neural activity, speeding up
  body functions, with associated energy and mood
  changes
• Includes speed, uppers, and methamphetamines
• Mimic adrenaline
• Can cause irreversible changes in mood

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Drug Classifications Hallucinogens
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Hallucinogens

• Drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory
  images in the absence of sensory input
• Include LSD and ecstasy
• Sometimes called psychedelics

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Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD)

• Powerful hallucinogenic drug
• Also known as acid
• The effects vary from person to person
• Users can be dangerous to themselves and others.

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Ecstasy

• Hallucinogenic drug that produces lower
  inhibitions, pleasant feelings, and greater
  acceptance of others
• Also called MDMA
• Even moderate users may experience permanent
  brain damage.

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Drug Classifications Marijuana
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Marijuana

• Leaves, stems, resin, and flowers form the hemp
  plant that, when smoked, lower inhibitions and
  produce feelings of relaxation and mild euphoria
• THC (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol) is the active
  ingredient
• Disrupts memory lung damage from smoke

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Prevention
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High School Drug Use(Johnston others, 2002)