The Northern Renaissance and the Reformation

1
The Northern Renaissance and the Reformation
2
Northern Europe after the Middle Ages

• No sudden break with the past
• But change was occurring
• Religion
• Christian Humanism vs. Civic Humanism
• Artistic innovation
• Literature
• Use of the vernacular
• Nation States vs. City States
• Emergence of strong monarchies

3
Religion in the North

• Christian Humanism
• Scholarly study of Hebrew and Greek biblical
  texts to deepen understanding
• Restore vitality to a decaying theology
• No attempt (at first) to change the Church
• Universities focused on theology as the
  foundation of knowledge

4
Mysticism

• Many believed that an individual had the right to
  commune directly with God. They wanted a more
  personal connection.
• No need for sacraments or leadership
• Salvation is still important belief
• Nicholas of Cusa
• Meister Eckhart
• Thomas a Kempis

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Nicholas of Cusa

• 1401-1464
• German Cardinal
• The human mind can know God
• Platonic philosophy Christian theology
  (neo-Platonist)

6
Meister Eckhart

• German
• 1260-1348
• Neo-Platonist
• Vernacular
• During Avignon Papacy
• Preached detachment
• Man should be empty of self and things he
  should see the simple good that God is.

7
Thomas a Kempis

• German monk
• 1380-1471
• Like all mystics, preached you do not need to be
  learned to know God
• "If, however, you seek Jesus in all things, you
  will surely find Him. "
• "At the Day of Judgment we shall not be asked
  what we have read but what we have done."

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Rebellion against the Church

• Papal abuses
• More emphasis moral education
• Basic Education
• Modern Devotion humility, tolerance,
  reverence, neighborly love, duty
• Church must change, adapt to modern times
• Strong monarchs resent the political power of the
  Church

9
German States Lead the Northern Renaissance

• Strong trade networks
• Wealthy families (Fuggers)
• New Industries
• Mining
• Printing Guttenberg,1450
• Art
• Science and Philosophy
• Early contributions

10
Art of the Northern Renaissance

• Less concerned with mathematical precision
• Color
• Detail
• Oil paintings
• Province of Flanders (Burgundy) the Florence of
  the North
• Guild System
• Wealthy, powerful patrons

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Jan van Eyck

• 1385-1441
• Dutch

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The Arnolfini Marriage
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Annunciation

• Mary and the angel Gabriel
• The study of theology as a noble pursuit
• Mary is modeled after the Duchess of Burgundy
  (van Eycks patroness)

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Albrecht Durer

• 1471-1528
• Nuremburg

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Mourning on Christs Death
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Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse
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Hans Holbein

• 1497-1543
• Bavarian
• Expert at painting the true person

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Ambassadors
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Henry VIII
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Hieronymous Bosch

• 1450-1516
• Dutch
• Master of Allegory
• Sin, immorality
• Surreal images

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Garden of Earthly Delights
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Temptation of St. Anthony
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Pieter Brueghel

• 1525-1569
• Dutch
• Expert at detail
• Painted the sins of the common man

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Netherlandish Proverbs
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Peasants Wedding
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Peasant Dance
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Literature

• Erasmus (1466-1536)
• Feared rebellion by the common man
• Education and morality
• Reform of the clergy
• Strong Biblical education
• Handbook of a Christian Knight
• Virtues Action, devotion, reason, tolerance,
  restraint, education love of peace

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Michel de Montaigne

• 1533-1592
• French
• Conservative Catholic
• What do I know? collection of essays
• Uses personal judgment to weigh political or
  religious conflict

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Francois Rabelais

• 1494-1533
• low-brow topics
• Vernacular (French)
• Introduced new words into French
• Gargantua and Pantagruel
• Role of free will and pleasure in society

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Miguel de Cervantes

• 1547-1616
• Don Quixote
• Spanish (vernacular)
• Mocks the Code of Chivalry, government
• Quixotic

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England and Shakespeare

• Helped glorify antiquity and the modern idea of
  strong monarchs
• Fostered English patriotism
• Helped Elizabeth I cement her authority with
  stories of English history
• 100 Years War
• War of the Roses

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New Monarchs

• Created modern nation states
• Guaranteed law and order.
• Hereditary Monarchy is most stable
• Supported growth of middle class
• Used well organized tax systems for better
  equipped and well paid armies
• Revival of Roman Law, removal of common (feudal)
  law
• What pleases the prince has the force of law

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The Reformation
34

• The pope is lower than God but higher than man.
  
• He judges all, but is judged by no one.
• -- Pope Innocent III
• (1161-1216)

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• "A Christian man is the most free lord of all and
  subject to none.
• (1520, Martin Luther)

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Causes of the Reformation
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Cause 1 Corruption of the Church

• Sale of Church offices (simony paying for a
  church office)
• Nepotism (favoring relatives over their
  relationship to you, instead of their abilities)
• Decline of morality amongst the Popes
• Sale of indulgences ( buying forgiveness)

38
Indulgences

• Early Punishment recitation of prayer, physical
  discomfort
• At the time of Crusades (1200s) the church began
  to allow payment for repentance
• Largest source of church revenue by 1500s
• So soon the coin in the coffer rings, so soon
  the soul to Heaven springs

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What is an Indulgence?

• A sinner failing to do penance in this life may
  be punished in another world (purgatory)
• After the sacrament of Penance, sin is forgiven
  and the threat of eternal punishment no longer
  exists
• However, temporal punishment still must occur.
• Temporal punishment must occur in this life or in
  purgatory
• An indulgence offers the sinner the chance to
  complete this debt owed to God while still on
  earth
• An indulgence is a task or money paid that could
  erase the debt

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What an Indulgence is NOT

• Church Doctrine said that an indulgence is not
• permission to commit sin
• forgiveness of future sin
• a way to release the soul of another from
  Purgatory

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Cause 2 Impact of Humanism

• Humanism glorifies mans duty to serve mankind
  above his duty to serve the Church.
• But for the Church, salvation depends on an
  obligation to the Church and the desire to attain
  salvation through the Church.

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Cause 3 Declining Prestige of the Papacy

• Babylonian Captivity 14th Century
• 14th Century
• Popes move to Avignon, become captives of the
  French kings
• Christendom sees Popes as puppets of the French
• Great Schism -- 1378 (lasted 40 years)
• Two Popes elected (Rome and Avignon)
• Moral decline
• Papal involvement in secular politics
• Creates confusion and resentment

43
Cause 4 Religious reformers

• Stressed personal communion with God
• Less emphasis on the sacraments
• Seven Sacraments
• Baptism, Confirmation, Holy Eucharist, Penance,
  Extreme Unction, Holy Orders, and Matrimony
• Weakened the influence of the clergy by casting
  doubt

Extreme Unction or annointing of the sick one
of the seven sacraments
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Cause 5 Secular rulers resented the power of the
Popes and clergy

• New Monarchs resisted papal control national
  churches
• Resented papal interference in politics
• Monarchs resented the vast amount of land held by
  the Church within national boundaries

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Cause 6 Invention of the Printing Press

• Dissenters can spread their ideas throughout
  Europe
• The Bible becomes available to the common person

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Other Causes

• Wealth made the merchant class grow bold in their
  challenges to church law. Usury is an example.
• Usury very high rates of interest on loans
• The Bible forbids it
• The merchant class relied on interest payments as
  a form of profit. They needed to banish the
  guilt associated with this practice.
• German and English nobility disliked and had
  always been suspicious of Italian domination of
  the Church.

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People and Events
48
John Wycliffe

• English (1320-1384)
• Remove corrupt church officials clergy are
  servants, not princes of the church.
• Bible is the sole authority of truth
• Translated the Bible into English
• Preached to those ignored by the church the
  poor, the sick, the elderly
• Natural death, but as a heretic his body was dug
  up and his bones were burned.

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Burning Wycliffes Bones
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John Huss

• John Huss -- 1369-1414
• A follower of Wycliffe
• 1412 No pope or bishop had the right to take up
  the sword in the name of the Church
• Forgiveness of sins by real repentance, not
  through money.
• Huss was burned at the stake for his reform
  beliefs

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Johann Tetzel 1465-1519

• Pope Leo X authorized him to sell indulgences
• By this time, Indulgences guarantee the remission
  of sins
• The money raised from the sale of indulgences
  would be primarily used to rebuild St. Peters
  Church in Rome
• Other funds would be given to local churches

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Indulgences paid for the opulence and grandeur of
St. Peters Basilica
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Martin Luther 1483-1536

• Roman Catholic priest
• Augustinian Monk (strict interpretation of dogma)
• Condemned sale of indulgences
• Believed we are all damned, despite our good
  deeds

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Luther and Salvation

• Good works, including prayer and fasting, are not
  enough to attain salvation
• Nails 95 Theses (complaints) to the church door.
• This actual act was not very revolutionary. What
  he wrote was revolutionary.
• Calls for Pope Leo X to reform the church

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Pope Leo X

• Member of the de Medici family
• To his brother "Since God has given us the
  papacy, let us enjoy it."
• Political
• Agreement with French king to protect Rome
  against foreign invasion
• Worked against the French king to elect Charles V
  as Holy Roman Emperor
• Too busy to halt Protestant Reformation

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Luthers Ideas
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Idea 1 Salvation by faith alone

• Good works cannot guarantee salvation
• A loving God will grant salvation whether you do
  good deeds or not, as long as you are faithful

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Idea 2 The Bible is the Ultimate Authority

• No Pope or church council can define Christian
  doctrine
• Every believer should read and interpret the
  Bible
• The faithful will be divinely guided

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Idea 3 The Grace of God brings forgiveness

• Indulgences and confession can NOT bring
  forgiveness of sins
• Each individual is freed of sin only by the Grace
  of God
• No earthly task you complete will buy salvation
• No pilgrimages, fasts, or worship and saints and
  relics

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Idea 4 There are only two valid sacraments

• Sacraments cannot be outward signs of faith and
  inner grace
• There are only TWO valid sacraments
• Baptism (because St. Augustine believed it
  essential to salvation)
• Communion (Holy Eucharist)

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Transubstantiation vs. Consubstantiation

• Luther also had specific beliefs about Communion
  (Holy Eucharist)
• He believed in Consubstantiation
• Transubstantiation belief that the bread and
  wine of Mass are transformed in the Body and
  blood of Christ
• Consubstantiation not a literal transformation.
  God is present WITH YOU -- but in a symbolic
  way.

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Idea 5 The Clergy is NOT superior to the
Congregation

• Marriage should be allowed for clergy
• Luther was married and had six children
• Christianity is a priesthood of all believers
• Monasticism should be abolished and church land
  redistributed

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Idea 6 The church should be subordinate to the
state

• The state is supreme should be led by a strong
  monarch
• The state should have the right to appoint church
  officials, tax church lands, and organize the
  church
• Appealed to the many German princes who resented
  the distant papal authority
• Many princes wanted to control the land held by
  the church within their national boundaries
• Princes and Monarchs also wanted to control the
  wealth of churches.

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Luthers Revolution
66
1517

• Luther writes his 95 Theses
• Labeled a heretic

67
1520

• Luther burns a papal bull that demanded he recant
  take back his complaints against the church
• Pope Leo X excommunicates Luther
• Charles V (Holy
  Roman Emperor) is under
  pressure to convict
  Luther of heresy.
• Luther is called to
  appear at a tribunal
  to explain his
  radical
  views

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1521

• Diet of Worms in Germany a special tribunal
  hearing
• Luther argues that only the Bible or sound
  reasoning will convince him to recant to take
  back his views on reform
• The Diet finds him guilty of heresy. He is
  banned from the Empire.
• He is offered protection by a German prince
• Under protection, Luther translates the Bible
  into German

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Luther Appearing at Worms
70
1520s

• Lutheranism begins to spread throughout northern
  Europe
• Charles the V Holy Roman Emperor is busy
  fighting the French and Ottoman Turks and cannot
  stop the protest against the Catholic Church

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1524-1526

• Luthers reform movement inspires several radical
  subgroups
• What they have in common is a desire to create
  social reform based on ideas of early
  Christianity
• Their demands led to the German Peasants War

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Peasants War 1524-1525

• Peoples revolt in the Holy Roman Empire
• About 300,000 participated. 1/3 died.
• Economic, Religious revolts by all social classes
• Lower and middle classes exploited by upper
  classes, resented the laziness and decadence of
  the clergy
• Princes opportunity to unite territory by
  abandoning the Catholic church
• Because the movement had no unity, it failed.
• But, did advance Lutheranism.

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Luther Preaching against the Peasants War
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Radical Groups Anabaptists

• Executed for their beliefs about baptism and
  government
• Infant baptism is not valid
• Baptism must be by choice
• Civil government belongs to the world.
• Believers must not fill any public office or hold
  military rank
• Government is to be passively obeyed
• Sinners excommunicated, excluded from community
  until they repent
• Mennonites, Amish

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Melchiorites

• Subgroup of Anabaptists
• Held Münster for about a year (1534-35) --
  Theocracy
• Dramatic changes
• Burned all books (not Bible)
• Banned money
• Seized the property of non-believers
• Killed Protestants and Catholics
• Judgment is close
• Polygamy
• John of Leyden, had sixteen wives

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Luthers Response to the Radicals

• Luther was appalled by the extremists
• Condemns revolutionaries (mostly peasants) and
  filthy swine
• Encourages harsh punishment by rulers
• Luther demanded that his followers obey authority
• They can read the Bible, but must leave
  interpretation to ministers

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Other Voices of the Reformation
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Erasmus

• 1466 1536
• Remained a Roman Catholic throughout his
  lifetime, but harshly criticized the Church.
• Faith -- not sacraments and rituals of the church
  -- is the only guarantee of eternal life.
• Erasmus sympathized with Luthers criticisms, but
  did not want to change Church doctrine.
• Preferred to reform the current church.

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Erasmus Power of the human will

• Man has the ability to choose salvation
• Commands, choice, reward and punishment would be
  meaningless in the absence of free will.
• Man must choose to be good

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Erasmus more ideas. . .

• The Education of a Christian Prince was published
  in 1516, before Niccolò Machiavellis The Prince.
• Machiavelli believed in control by political
  force It is safer for a prince to be feared
  than loved.
• But Erasmus thought the prince should be loved.
  The prince needed a well-rounded education to
  govern justly and benevolently and to avoid
  becoming a source of oppression.

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Ulrich Zwingli

• Swiss led reformation in Switzerland
• Humanist, Catholic priest
• Same conclusions as Luther
• No mass
• No confession
• Only 2 sacraments
• 1522 The Bible as the sole source of truth.

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Switzerland and the Reformation

• Cantons split
• Catholic cantons want reform within Church
• Catholic cantons form alliances with Austria
  (Charles V)
• Threat of civil war -- Zwingli is leader of
  reformist cantons
• Refuses any compromise with Catholic cantons
• War 1531, Zwingli killed in battle

84
Charles V

• 1500-1558
• Holy Roman Emperor
• Powerful (Spain, Flanders, Burgundy, Italy)
• Numerous family connections create political
  problems

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The Reformation Part 2
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Challenges to the Church

• Heretics
• Mystics
• Nominalism stressed the reality of anything
  concrete and real, thus doubting faith.
• Humanism Classical World as true source of
  virtue and wisdom.
• The growth of commerce and trade led to wealth.
  The here and now is something good.
• European kings, princes

87
Why did people follow Luther?

• Merchants keep wealth yet still be given a
  chance for salvation.
• Poor Luther offered individual dignity and
  respect. Faith not money leads to salvation.
• Most Germans Lutheranism was a way to attack the
  Holy Roman Empire and Charles V (1500-1558).
• An alternative to the Roman Church.
• Catholicism appealed to men and women as members
  of a group (the Church)
• Lutheranism meant that faith was now something
  individual

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More Reformation Events

• 1529 German princes do not have the right to
  determine the religion of their subjects
• 1531 German princes newly Protestant create
  the League of Schmalkalden to protect themselves
  against Charles V.
• Pope no compromise with Lutherans
• No chance for reunification
• 1530s The reformation spreads beyond Germany

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1531

• Switzerland First religious Civil War
• The peace agreement allows each Swiss canton to
  determine its own religion

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1534

• Act of Supremacy makes Henry VIII the head of the
  Anglican Church.
• English Parliament abolishes Roman Catholic
  monasteries, confiscates land, redistributes land
  to those who support the new church

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Calvinism
  You must submit to supreme suffering in order
to discover the completion of joy
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John Calvin 1509-1564

• Second wave of the Protestant Reformation
• Humanist scholar.
• Hebrew, Greek, and Latin
• Read works of Erasmus and Luther

93
Calvins Ideas

• Man is helpless being before an all-powerful God
• No free will
• Man is predestined for either Heaven or Hell
• Man can do nothing to alter his fate.

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Calvin Predestination

• God knows even before birth whether a person is
  saved or damned. There is nothing anyone can do
  the win or buy salvation
• The Elect or Saints are a select few, saved
  only by Gods love from a corrupt humanity
• The Elect know they are chosen through a
  mystical encounter (called conversion) or
  through material prosperity.
• This emphasis on material wealth through hard
  work leads to Puritanism

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More on Predestination

• Your destiny is in the hands of an all-powerful
  God
• Anxiety -- no one knew just what to do.
• Calvin admitted that good works served a purpose.
  
• Good works became a divine sign that the
  individual was making the best of their life here
  on earth.
• no guarantees
• The "calling"
• Some men and women seemed ill-fitted for life on
  earth. They were avaricious, slothful, amoral.
• Others worked happily, accomplishing much and in
  the right spirit. They had been "called" to do a
  certain thing here on earth.

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Calvin Church Government

• Each congregation elects its minister and governs
  itself
• Disagreed with Luther the church is not
  subordinate to the state
• The church should be a moral force within a
  secular government
• Encourages theocracies

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Geneva 1540s

• Calvin imposed a social order of harsh discipline
  and order.
• Calvin forced all citizens to succumb to his
  rigorous ideals of a religious life.
• Wake up early, work hard, be forever concerned
  with good morals, be thrifty at all times,
  abstain from worldly pleasures, be sober, and
  above all, serious.
• Worldly asceticism -- denial of all worldly
  pleasure while living in this world.

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Nobody Expects the Spanish Inquisition!
99

• NOBODY expects the Spanish Inquisition! Our chief
  weapon is surprise...surprise and fear...fear and
  surprise....
• Our two weapons are fear and surprise...and
  ruthless efficiency....
• Our three weapons are fear, surprise, and
  ruthless efficiency...and an almost fanatical
  devotion to the Pope....

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Spanish Inquisition

• Cathars in France (1200s)
• Reconquista 722-1492
• Ferdinand and Isabella
• Strengthen power over recently unified Spain
• Root out false converts
• Marriscos, Marranos
• Protestants NOT targeted
• New World

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Cathar Persecution (The Perfects)
102
The Element of Surprise (and fear)

• Tomas de Torquemada, Chief Inquisitor
• Auto de Fe Act of Faith (Public announcement)
• Widely attended, popular
• After Auto de Fe, punishment was inflicted in
  private -- torture, burnings
• Secret accusations, surprise arrests
• Confess, reveal others, serve prison term
• Refuse to confess or reveal others torture and
  death

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Goyas Inquisition
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The Auto de Fe
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Ruthless Efficiency

• 1492 all Jews expelled from Spain (many went to
  Venice)
• 13,000 eventually arrested
• 2,000 killed under Torquemada

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Fanatical Devotion to the Pope?

• Pope authorized, but no control
• Completely controlled by Spanish monarchs
• Purify Spain, to honor the Church
• Protect Spain from Protestant infiltration

109
The Black Legend

• End of 16th century
• Spain is symbol of repression, brutality,
  intolerance, and intellectual and artistic
  backwardness
• Cruelty in New World cannot be helped, part of
  Spanish identity

110
Counter Reformation

• Church response to the Protestant Reformation

111
Counter Reformation 1540s

• Inquisition
• The Church destroyed heretical literature
• Protestant books burned
• Works by reform-minded Catholic humanists
  destroyed
• The Index of Prohibited Books
• Education, preaching, church building,
  persecution, and censorship
• Did succeed in bringing some people back to the
  Church.

112
Council of Trent 1545-1563

• Compromise Salvation is by both good works AND
  faith
• The seven sacraments are valid
• Transubstantiation is reaffirmed
• The sources of religious authority are
• The bible
• Traditions of the church
• Writings of church fathers
• Individuals can NOT interpret the bible without
  the guidance of the church
• One valid version of the bible (5th century
  Latin)

113
Council of Trent

• Reaffirms monasticism and celibacy
• Reaffirms the existence of purgatory
• Corrected abuses related to indulgences, but kept
  the practice
• Gave final authority to the Pope on biblical and
  church matters

114
Jesuits

• Ignatius Loyola -- 1537
• Militant arm of the Catholic and Counter
  Reformations
• Blind obedience and absolute faith
• Jesuits swore to suppress Protestantism
• Advised Catholic kings
• Suppressed heresy through the Inquisition
• Established schools to indoctrinate the young
• Sent missionaries to the new worlds to convert

115
Jesuits and Protestantism

• Jesuits highlighted one central flaw in
  Protestant theology predestination.
• The Jesuits offered hope in the power of the
  priest to offer forgiveness.
• Jesuits made Christianity more emotional
• Small sins are permitted in the service of a
  just cause.
• What implications does this have for rulers?

116
Legacy of the Jesuits

• Greatest teachers in Europe, especially in
  France.
• Built schools and universities, designed churches
• Baroque Art and Architecture emotional,
  intended to move the heart.

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Baroque Architecture
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The End of the Reformation
121
Peace of Augsburg -- 1555

• German princes can choose the religion of their
  subjects.
• cuius regio, eius religio ("whose territory, his
  religion", or "in the Prince's land, the Prince's
  religion"),
• Treaty Charles V and the forces of the
  Schmalkaldic League
• Grace period families had the right to move to
  different region to practice desired religion.

122
Consequences of Augsburg

• Relieved tension in the empire and increased
  tolerance
• But left important things undone
• Many Protestant groups living under the rule of a
  Lutheran prince still found themselves in danger
  of the charge of heresy
• Anabaptists and Calvinists were not protected
  under the peace
• Intolerance towards Calvinists led to the Thirty
  Years' War (1618-48)
• Tolerance finally granted in 1648

123
Consequences of the Reformation

• Europe split
• Secularism
• Fewer clergy
• Creation of the modern state (stronger monarchs)
• New understanding of Law
• Since all men are governed by the laws of God,
  punishment should be given to those who break
  these laws -- kings included. So, in 1649, the
  English executed Charles I.
• Individualism
• Personal interpretation of Bible
• Rise in literacy

124
South remains Catholic North is strongly
reformist Lutherans, Calvinists, and
Anglicans There are still several areas in which
Catholics and Protestants co-exist. This will
lead to several religious wars.
125
English Reformation

• Henry VIII wants a son, so England gets
  reformed
• 1528 Henry asked the pope to annul, or
• cancel, his marriage. The pope refused.
• Henry took the Church from the popes control and
• created the Church of England.
• Henrys children
• Protestant King Edward VI brought Protestant
  reforms to England.
• Queen Mary wanted to restore Catholicism to
  England. English Protestants burned at the stake.
• Queen Elizabeth compromise between Protestants
  and Catholics.

126
The Reformation and Witchcraft

• 1560-1700
• Upheaval, many feared the presence of evil
• Disloyalty to the Church causes many to be
  labeled witch
• Over 100,0000 prosecuted 75 killed, mostly in
  Germany (center of Reformation)
• Nearly all of accused were women
• England, Scotland, Switzerland, Germany, France,
  Holland, Colonial America
• Maleficium confirms the presence of witches, how
  to identify and punish
• 30 Years War creates religious tolerance
  witchcraft accusations drop off
• Last outbreak Salem 1692 (18 hanged)