The Viking World

1
The Viking World Farms and Farmers Religion Viking
Raids Ships and Navigation War and
Conquest Settlement Buildings Trade Towns Home
Life Crafts Arts and Poetry Discoverers The
Vikings in the East The Vikings in Iceland The
End of the Vikings
2
The Viking World

From their homeland in Scandinavia, the Vikings
traveled across half the world. In the east, they
crossed Russia and went as far as Baghdad and
Constantinople. In the west, they sailed to
Iceland, Greenland, and North America, which they
reached 500 years before the famous voyage made
by Christopher Columbus in 1492. They founded a
new nation in Iceland. They settled in Britain,
Ireland, and France and had colonies in Russia.
In all these places, their influence can still be
seen today. (A) SCANDINAVIA The ancestors of
the Vikings first settled in Denmark in about
8000 BC, soon after the last Ice Age. By the
Viking age (about AD 800-1100) they had settled
in much of Scandinavia. (B) THE EAST People
from Sweden settled in Finland, and from

there they eventually spread
east as far as Russia

and the Caspian Sea. (C) SOUTHERN RAIDS Viking
raiders sailed south along the Atlantic

coast to the
Mediterranean. They reached Spain,

North Africa, and Italy.
HOME
3
Farms and Farmers

Although we think of the Vikings as seagoing
people, their main occupation was farming. Nearly
everything they needed had to be produced on the
farm not only food, but also clothes, furniture,
tools, and weapons. In the summer enough food had
to be grown to last through the long winter, and
if harvests were poor, people sometimes starved.
A large farm like this was owned by a local
chieftain. Besides his family, he had thralls
(slaves) and karls (free men who did not own
their own land) to help with the work. Smaller
farms were sometimes grouped in villages,
especially in Denmark. In Norway there were few
large areas of good land, and farms were often
isolated. To visit the nearest neighbor might
take a day's journey, and the easiest way was by
boat.(A) OUTBUILDINGSSeparate buildings
contained a bakery, sometimes a brewery, a
blacksmith's workshop, and barns for storage.
Every few years the farm was abandoned and
another built close by.(B) ANIMALSAnimals were
allowed to wander in and out of their
stables.(C) CROPSFarmers grew cereals such as
oats, barley, and rye, but not

much wheat, except in
Denmark.(D) FARMERSNearly all Vikings were
farmers, even if they were also

hunters, raiders, or
fishermen. In flat, fertile Denmark,

farming was easy. In
mountainous Norway, good land

was scarce.
4
Farm Tools

Farmers used iron tools. Sickle blades, shown at
the top of the picture, were used for harvesting
and have been found in many graves. Ploughs,
shown at the bottom of the picture, had an iron
ploughshare, or cutting blade - centre picture.
Quern Stone

On most farms, grain was ground into flour with a
quern, or hand mill, consisting of two small,
circular stones called quern stones.
HOME
5
Religion

According to the Norse religion, when people died
they made a journey, in spirit, to the next
world, and so they were buried with many of their
possessions for use in the afterlife. The tombs
of important people were placed inside ships. The
ships were then buried, or sometimes set alight
and cast adrift. Ordinary graves were often
marked by stones laid out in the shape of a ship.
Before they became Christian, the Vikings
believed in the Norse gods and goddesses, who
behaved like humans with superhuman powers. The
gods demanded sacrifices in exchange for sending
victory to warriors and good weather to farmers.
The Vikings held three religious festivals,
marked by feasting, each year.(A) BURIAL
SHIPThe bodies of kings, queens, and other
powerful people were placed in a real ship, which
was then covered with a mound of earth.(B)
HORSESThe Vikings believed that the dead had to
make a long

journey, so they
were buried with horses, and sometimes

with
carts.(C) BURIAL CHAMBERA special tomb was
constructed inside the ship to


contain the body.(D) GRAVESGraves were
sometimes outlined with stones in the shape


of a ship. Only important people were
buried in a real ship.(E) POSSESSIONSMany of
the dead person's possessions were buried with


him or her. The rest were divided among
the family.
6
Lucky Charm

The god Thor used a double-headed hammer as his
weapon. It caused thunder when it was thrown.
This lucky charm in the shape of Thor's hammer
was worn around the neck, just as a Christian
would wear a cross.
Brooch

This is a brooch of the World Serpent, one of the
monsters that were enemies of the gods. It lived
at the bottom of the ocean. Thor once went
fishing for the serpent, using a bull's head as
bait.
HOME
7
Viking Raids

The Vikings first appeared in other parts of
northern Europe as violent raiders. They came
across the sea without warning in their fast
warships to attack undefended ports or island
abbeys. They killed unarmed people without mercy,
carried young men and women away to sell as
slaves, and seized anything valuable they could
find. Sometimes the Vikings sailed far up rivers
to attack inland cities. In 845, more than 100
Viking ships sailed up the Seine River and
attacked Paris. The king of the Franks had to pay
6,600 pounds (3,000 kilograms) of silver to make
them leave.(A) MONASTERIESMonks often built
their monasteries on islands off the coast, where
they thought they would be safe. They expected to
be attacked from the land, not from the sea.(B)
SLAVESBesides treasure, the raiders took away
young
men and
women to be sold as slaves.(C) VIKING
SHIPSViking ships lay shallow in the water and
could
be
driven straight onto a beach. People had little

warning of their
approach.(D) THE RAIDERSThe English called the
Vikings who raided their

coast 'Danes,' but they included Norwegians and

Swedes.
HOME
8
Ships and Navigation

The Vikings were the best seamen of their time,
and their ships were the best the world had ever
seen. Their long, narrow warships were light,
flexible, and very seaworthy even in stormy seas,
and they could sail in shallow water. They were
made of oak - or pine in Norway. The wood for the
curved parts was made from timber with a natural
curve, so wood was never cut across the grain
(which can make it split). Powered by a square
sail and oars, warships could travel at 10 knots
or more (nearly 12 miles, or 20 kilometers, per
hour). Like other sailors, the Vikings preferred
to sail close to land, but they were not afraid
to cross open seas. In fact, they crossed the
North Atlantic - one of the world's stormiest
seas.(A) SAILShips had a single, square sail
made from strips of woolen cloth. Warships relied
mainly on their oars, except on the open sea. The
sail could be rolled up and the mast
lowered.(B) STURDY FRAMEThe ship's backbone,
the keel, was made from a

single
piece of wood, to which the curved ends


and the rest of the ship were
added.(C) OARSWarships had 12 or more pairs of
oars running

the full
length of the ship.(D) SHIELDSShields were
mounted on the gunwale to protect

the
rowers from enemy weapons.
9
Sun Compass

Tools

The rudder had not yet been invented, and ships
were steered with a steering board (from which
the word star-board is derived).
The Vikings had no charts or instruments, but
they may have had a 'sun compass'. It measured
the height of the sun above the horizon. From
that measurement it was possible to calculate
latitude (the distance from north to south).
                                                                                                                                                                           
Steering Board

Tools used by Viking shipbuilders for shaping
wood and hammering nails were similar to those
used by carpenters today.
HOME
10
War and Conquest

 
Besides treasure and slaves, which could be sold,
the Vikings wanted land. At first, their raids
lasted a few days or weeks in summer, but soon
armies began to arrive and stay all winter.
Viking armies conquered all the kingdoms of
Anglo-Saxon England. In 878, King Alfred of
Wessex came to an agreement with the Viking
leader, Guthrum, allowing the Vikings to settle
in northwest England, in the region called the
Danelaw. In France, Vikings led by Rollo were
given Normandy by the French king in 911 or 912.
Once they settled down, they defended the country
against raids by other Vikings.(A) FIERCE
FIGHTERSThe Vikings were fierce fighters. They
had no special battle plan. It was an all-out
fight of man against man.(B) SWORDSViking
swords usually had skillfully decorated

hilts
(handles), some inlaid with silver. The part

gripped
by the hand was wooden.(C) HEAD PROTECTIONOnly
the chief warriors had iron helmets. Other

men probably
wore tough leather caps that

would blunt a blow from a sword.
11
Weapons

Helmet

Vikings carried round, brightly painted wooden
shields. They were about 3 feet (1 meter) across
- wide enough to protect the body from neck to
thigh. On ships, shields were mounted along the
side to protect the rowers from spears or arrows.
The best helmets were made from iron. They had a
noseguard and sometimes guards around the eyes.
They never had horns.
Double-edged swords were the chief Viking
weapons. Other weapons included spears for
throwing and stabbing, battle axes, and bows and
arrows. Some weapons, especially swords, were
richly made, with gold and silver hilts.
Chain mail
A full suit of chain mail, made from iron links,
took a long time to make and was expensive.
Sometimes just a piece of chain mail was attached
to the helmet to protect the neck.
HOME
12
Settlement

The Vikings settled in many countries beyond
Scandinavia. Some of these countries, such as
Britain, Ireland, and France, were inhabited, and
the Vikings had to fight for their settlements.
Others, such as the Faeroe Islands and Iceland,
were uninhabited. The settlements were led by
aristocratic leaders called jarls (earls), who
became independent rulers themselves, though most
of their lands were taken over by kings in later
times. Some of their settlements developed into
important cities. Dublin, the capital of Ireland,
was founded by the Vikings as a naval base in
843. It grew into a real town. Vikings also
founded the independent kingdom of Man. The Isle
of Man still has its own parliament.(A)
WATTLESimple walls were made from wattle - woven
panels of osier, or willow. They were then
covered in clay or animal dung to keep out drafts
and dampness.(B) STONE WALLStone was sometimes
used for the lower part of walls,

especially where timber was
scarce. The Vikings had

no mortar, so dry stones
were carefully fitted together.(C) THATCH
ROOFIn regions where suitable reeds grew, the
roofs of

houses were covered in thatch.(D)
ROADSPathways made of strong timber were laid in
towns

where traffic was heavy. Wattle
panels were also used

but were unsuitable for carts.
HOME
13
Buildings

The Vikings built many different kinds of houses,
depending on what materials were available. Their
houses were not built to last very long. After
some years, villages and farms were often
abandoned and rebuilt nearby. Because they had
open fires and no chimneys - smoke escaped
through a hole in the roof - the houses often
burned down. Floors were simply earth, beaten
hard. Walls were lined with wood, sometimes
carved into panels. Buildings had only one
storey, although some big farmhouses were quite
tall, with wooden pillars inside to support the
roof. The same kind of building might be a home,
a workshop, or even (in Christian times) a
church. A Viking "longhouse" often had an area at
one end for storing grain or for keeping cattle
in winter. (A) APPRENTICE House building was
one of the skills that


every boy learned. (B) THATCHING Vikings made
roofs from thatch if reeds


were available. (C) WOOD Viking houses were
built from wood when


it was available. (D) BUTTRESSES Heavy
timbers propped against the walls


at an angle kept the building
steady, as it

had no
foundations.
14
Osier

Longhouse

In the Shetland Islands today there are
longhouses that look like the farmhouses built by
the Vikings centuries earlier. These were
basically one long room with winter stables for
the animals.
Osier is a type of willow with tough, bendable
branches. The branches were used to make wattle,
for building houses.
Turf

Turf was cut from the ground in square sods for
building walls and roofs in places like Iceland,
where few large trees grew.
HOME
15
Trade

Some Vikings became very wealthy, not through
booty seized in raids but through honest trade.
Objects found in graves come from most parts of
Europe and even Asia. Although some may be stolen
goods, many were obtained through trade. In the
early years, most trade took the form of barter -
exchanging one kind of goods for another. But as
time went on and the Vikings grew richer, more
and more goods were bought and sold for money.
Possibly the most valuable Viking exports were
slaves and furs. Norway provided much of the fur
trade and also exported timber, but it had to
import grain, which could not easily be grown in
the far north. Other imports included wine, salt,
cloth, pottery, and glass.(A) SLAVESSlaves
were among the Vikings' most valuable exports.
They were prisoners captured in Viking
raids.(B) TRADERSTraders from many parts of
Europe and even the

Middle
East visited Scandinavian trade centers.(C)
WINEThe Vikings could not grow grapes because
the

climate was too cold. They imported
wine from

Germany and France.(D) SHIPSMerchant
ships were broader and deeper than

warships. Some
could carry 40 or 50 tons of cargo.

They
had a smaller crew and therefore depended


mainly on sail, using oars only when necessary.
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      
HOME
16
Towns

The Vikings were not townspeople by preference,
but towns always grow up where merchants gather
to do business. This is Hedeby, formerly in
southern Denmark (now in Germany), which was
founded before 800 and covered an area of up to
59 acres (24 hectares). All that can be seen
today is the defensive rampart built in the 10th
century, but archaeologists have uncovered part
of the town, giving a good idea of what it looked
like. Besides being a centre of trade between
eastern and western Europe, it also contained
workshops, which may have made goods to be traded
for food with nearby villages. Even a settlement
as large as Hedeby was not a true town as we know
it. There were no public buildings or schools,
but there was a kind of town council.(A)
DEFENSETowns were protected on the landward side
by wooden fences and earthen ramparts.(B)
HOMESTEADSA Viking town was really more like a
village. Each house, together with its
outbuildings, was sited on a separately fenced
plot, on which livestock and vegetables were
raised.(C) IN HARBORWhen ships were not in
use, their sails were lowered and the


oars stacked in Y-shaped supports on board.(D)
WATERWAYSTowns were usually built near the sea
or on a river with

access to the sea. Boats provided
the easiest form of

transport.(E) TOWNSPEOPLEPeople
settled in the Viking towns and traded goods with


other nearby villages.
17
Honey
Floors
The Vikings did not have sugar and used honey as
a sweetener instead. Honey was also the main
ingredient of an alcoholic drink called mead.
Rushes were sometimes put on the earthen floors
of houses. When they grew dirty, the rushes were
thrown out and replaced with fresh ones.
Wells
A town's fresh drinking water was usually drawn
from a well.
HOME
18
Home Life

 
Viking homes would not seem comfortable to us.
They were dark and smoky, with no windows and
little furniture except for shelves, stools, and
chests for clothes. The hall of a big farmstead
was up to 131 feet (40 meters) long, and the
sagas tell of feasts where 100 people sat down
together. Benches and tables could be hauled up
to the roof, out of the way, when not in use.
Women were in charge of the home, and they looked
after the farm when the husband was away.
Although they did not have equal rights with men,
they fared better than women in many other
societies of the time. Children did not go to
school. They helped around the farm and learned
the skills they would need to survive as
adults.(A) UTENSILSCooks used iron pots, bowls
of soapstone or pottery, and wooden plates.
People ate with a knife and spoon, or with their
hands. Forks were not used.(B) HEARTHIn the
centre of the house was an open


fireplace, called a hearth. It gave warmth


and light, and the food was
cooked here.(C) MEAT AND VEGETABLESVikings ate
much meat and fish, but they


also grew vegetables such as cabbages


and parsnips.(D)
WOOLClothes were mostly made from wool.


This
woman is spinning yarn. A loom, for


weaving the yarn into cloth, stands
against

the wall.
19
Loom

Clothes were made at home, usually from wool. All
woolens, including ships' sails, were woven on a
loom such as this one.
Board Game

Board games have been found in Viking graves. One
game was played with counters like checkers, but
we do not know the rules.
HOME
20
Crafts

The most important materials were wood and iron,
and Viking craftsmen were expert workers in both.
Every settlement had its own blacksmith and its
own carpenter's shop. In the towns, workshops
produced goods for sale. A modern blacksmith
would find it difficult to make a sword blade
(using strips of plaited and welded iron) that
was as good as the swords made by Viking weapons
makers. Among other specialists were leather
workers, who made harnesses, shoes, caps, and
tunics tough enough to resist a slashing sword.
The finest of all craftsmen were the jewelers and
goldsmiths. The Vikings were fond of gold,
silver, and bronze ornaments. Both men and women
wore them. They indicated a person's wealth and
could also be used as money.(A)
BLACKSMITHThere was a blacksmith in every
settlement, although the best ironwork was done
in large towns and trade centers.(B) TOOLS AND
WEAPONSIron was a precious metal to the Vikings.
Nearly all

their best tools and
weapons were made from iron.(C) CARPENTERApart
from iron, Viking craftsmen worked mainly in


wood. Their ships and houses were made
from

wood, and they also made
skillful, complicated

carvings.
HOME
21
Arts and Poetry

Viking art is best seen today in jeweler or
carved stone. Some wood carvings have also
survived, but wood and textiles, such as
tapestries, usually rotted. Viking designs were
lively and creative, but they were abstract, not
realistic. They were based mainly on long, ribbon
like forms and strange animal heads, and even
experts sometimes find them difficult to
understand. Poetry was always popular among kings
and nobles. Court poets were called skalds. Their
poems were about heroes and battles and were
learned by heart because there were no books
until late in the Viking age. The Vikings had a
form of writing, called runes, that was carved
with a knife into wood or stone. To make them
easier to cut, runes were made up of upright or
slanting strokes.(A) ENGRAVINGThe engraved
picture-stones of the Baltic island of Gotland
show ships and warriors, and scenes from
mythology.(B) RUNESNot everyone understood
runes and they were sometimes thought of as magic
signs. But they were normally used for ordinary
purposes, such as keeping records.(C) STONE
MEMORIALSMost runic inscriptions that have
survived


today are cut in stone, but other materials,


such as wood or bone,
were also used.(D) STORYTELLERStories, or
sagas, about famous heroes


were told in early Viking times but not


written down until centuries
later.
22
Runes Runes are difficult for people to read
nowadays because the same sign may represent more
than one sound - and there were no signs for some
letters.
Music

Vikings enjoyed feasts and story-telling, and
probably enjoyed singing too, but we know nothing
about their music. This pipe, found in Sweden,
was made from an animal bone.
Monument

The Vikings put up stone monuments to dead
relatives. Some had pictures, which were carved
and then painted, as well as runic inscriptions.
HOME
23
Discoverers

The best land in Iceland was soon occupied. In
985 Eric the Red led settlers from Iceland to
Greenland, which he had discovered on an earlier
voyage. Although most of Greenland is covered by
thick ice, it has some fertile land. The grazing,
fishing, and hunting were good, and the climate
was not much colder than Iceland. Eric built his
own homestead, and other families settled nearby.
Later, they found that more land existed farther
west across the ocean. Eric's son Leif reached it
in about the year 1000. He found a warmer country
with forests and wild grapes, and called it
Vinland. Exactly where Vinland was is unknown,
but the Vikings did reach North America, because
remains of a settlement have been found in
Newfoundland.(A) SALMONAlthough Greenland was
mostly covered in ice, nature provided plenty of
food, such as salmon from the rivers.(B)
MERCHANTSIn the early years, the Greenlanders
kept in touch with Iceland and Scandinavia.
Merchants brought vital supplies in exchange for
Greenland products such as polar-bear skins.(C)
WINTER FOODFish was hung out to dry on poles and
then

stored for the long
winter.(D) VENISONAfter a successful hunt for
reindeer, the


animals were skinned. The meat was dried


and stored
for the winter.
24
Whalebone

Grapes

Whales provided many useful things, including
meat, oil, and whalebone - the tough, bony plates
from the mouths of certain whales. Whalebone
could be made into many things, such as this axe
head.
When Leif Eriksson traveled west of Greenland
across the ocean, he discovered a land where wild
grapes grew. He called his discovery Vinland
(Wine-land). However, the exact location of
Vinland remains unknown.
Halibut

Greenlanders caught halibut by digging a trench
in the sand at low tide. The halibut would swim
in with the tide. When the tide went out again,
they were trapped in the trench.
HOME
25
The Vikings in the East

Swedish merchants traveled across the Baltic Sea
to Russia in the 9th century and traded with the
Slav people. They traveled by boat down the great
Russian rivers. When stopped by rapids, they
carried their boats around them. The Dnieper
River took them to the Black Sea and to
Constantinople (now Istanbul), and the Volga took
them to the Caspian Sea and, traveling overland
by camel, to Baghdad (now the capital of Iraq).
In the eastern markets they were able to buy
valuable luxuries, such as silks and spices. The
Swedes played a part in the growth of the city of
Novgorod, their chief trading centre, and in the
early development of Russia.(A) RAPIDSThe
Swedish adventurers who crossed northern Europe
followed the rivers using boats. When stopped by
rapids, they carried the boats around them.(B)
WEAPONSSwedish traders in Russia needed weapons


to fight the Slavic
tribes, who did not always

welcome them.(C)
PACKHORSESWhen traveling overland, merchants
used

packhorses to carry
their goods.(D) RIVERSRivers provided the best
highways for


long-distance travel. It was possible to go


from the Baltic all the way to the Black Sea


with only a short distance over
land.
26
Rune Stone

Merchants who traveled to the East sometimes
erected rune stones, which recorded their
travels.
Horse Collar Horses were used to pull carts,
ploughs, and sledges. The reins passed through a
horse collar, which was often beautifully made.
Sledge

The Vikings used wooden sledges similar to modern
ones for transporting goods across snow. In cold
weather sledges were more useful than carts,
which could get stuck in mud.
HOME
27
The Vikings in Iceland

Vikings from Norway began to settle in Iceland in
the 870s. The first settlers were led by chiefs
who wanted more land or hoped to escape the
growing power of the king in Norway. Except for a
few Irish monks, who soon left, no one lived in
Iceland before the Vikings. They created a new
nation, which has lasted to the present. Unlike
any other country, Viking Iceland was a kind of
republic. There was no king. Laws were passed by
a national assembly, the Althing - sometimes
called the world's first parliament - which met
at Thingvellir. It had an elected president. He
had to know all the laws by heart, as they were
not written down until 1119. The Althing was also
a place for exchanging news and goods.(A)
THINGVELLIRThe 'Law Speaker,' who was an elected
judge, addressed fellow chiefs from the Law Rock,
part of some lava cliffs formed long ago after a
volcanic eruption.(B) LOCAL CHIEFSThe law and
government was the business of local chiefs.
Disputes were solved - usually - by discussion
and a vote.(C) BENCHESMen attending a thing,
or local assembly, sat


in a circle on temporary benches, made by


placing boards
on stone supports.(D) ALTHING CHIEFSIf fierce
arguments seemed likely, the chiefs


at the Althing left their
weapons stacked well


away from the meeting.
28
Saga

Barley

Although the climate was warmer than now, it was
too cold in Iceland to grow wheat. Barley was
grown instead and made into flat bread. Ale was
brewed from malted barley.
Iceland is the home of the sagas, stories that
were written down 200 or 300 years after they
were first told. The sagas tell us a great deal
about the Vikings and their way of life.
                                                                                                                                                                           
Farmhouse

Hot Spring

Iceland has many hot springs. People who built
houses close to a hot spring
enjoyed hot baths even in
midwinter.
The upper walls and roof of an Icelandic
farmhouse were made of turf. Turf was warmer than
wood, which was scarce, although more trees grew
in Iceland during Viking times.
HOME
29
The End of the Vikings

The age of the Vikings did not end suddenly, but
the defeat of King Harald Hardrada by the English
king Harold Godwinson in 1066 was a sign that the
age of the Vikings was over. Raiding was no
longer so easy. Changes in farming methods had
reduced the need for more land. In places where
Vikings had settled down, they had become no
different from their neighbors, and Scandinavia
had become a Christian land. Although
Christianity did not prevent wars, it taught that
killing was wrong. One sign of this change was
the large number of churches that were built in
Scandinavia. Like other buildings, they were made
of wood. They were built from planks, like a
ship, and are known as stave churches.(A) STAVE
CHURCHESScandinavian Christians built
magnificent wooden churches, such as this one at
Borgund, Norway. The walls were made of upright
timbers held by horizontal beams at top and
bottom, like the staves of a barrel.(B)
CARVINGStave churches contain elaborate carved


decoration. So far as we
know, Viking houses

had nothing like
this, although it may simply be


that no such carving has survived.(C)
KEEPING DRYThe method of stave construction
allowed the

whole building to be
raised above the ground,


so the wood would not rot.
30
Bayeux Tapestry

Castles

Soon after the defeat of Harald Hardrada, England
was successfully invaded by the Normans. The
Norman Conquest was recorded in the Bayeux
Tapestry. Norman means 'Norseman' - the first
Normans were Viking settlers. However, by 1066
their descendants had become French men and
women.
Stone castles started to be built in Europe in
the 11th century. They were far too strong to be
captured by old-fashioned Viking raids.
Stone Cross

Dragon Heads

This stone cross shows a Viking warrior buried
with his weapons in
the old Viking way, although

he was a Christian. Several
monuments like this can be
seen in
northern England.
As well as Christian crosses, the Borgund church
has Viking dragon heads, to protect it from
demons.
HOME